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Influencing Factors in the Allocation of Cognitive Control: Rewards and Costs Si Shuangqing, Zhou Sihong, Yuan Jiajin, Yang Qian Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 258-266.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240201 Abstract （1612）      PDF（pc） （1015KB）（1532）       Knowledge map    Save Cognitive control refers to people’s ability to adaptively employ cognitive resources and adjust cognitive processes in pursuit of goal-directed behavior. Since naturally occurring behavioral situations are constantly changing, people would mobilize their control adaptively. According to the Expected Value of Control (EVC) model, the dynamic adjustment of control can be thought of as value-based decision making, centered on the integration of rewards and costs that can be expected from a control-demanding task. Hence, reward and cost are two key factors jointly modulating people’s motivation and determining the allocation of control. Following this framework but going beyond the EVC model, the current review elucidated the role of various motivation-related factors that can act as rewards or costs in the implementation of cognitive control, and discussed how they collectively adjust cognitive control. More specifically, money, juice, or emotional/social stimuli are extrinsic rewards that can drive cognitive control and improve task performance, albeit with a few exceptions. Considering this complexity, other factors can further modulate the beneficial effects (e.g., reward-poor vs. reward-rich task conditions, the congruity of reward and task performance, and individual reward sensitivity). Besides, in contrast to extrinsic rewards that are manipulated externally, intrinsic rewards are highly integrated into control-related tasks. It can be reflected in people’s autonomic engagement with certain tasks and the positive emotions they generated. In this sense, the investigation of the influence of intrinsic rewards on cognitive control is relatively indirect, which can be achieved by adjusting effort levels and positive emotions. Relatedly, individual differences in intrinsic motivation, as reflected by the need for cognition (NFC), are also closely tied to intrinsic rewards in driving control. That is, individuals high in need for cognition are more inclined to be involved in control demanding tasks and to persist in difficult or unprofitable cognitive tasks. Meanwhile, due to the presence of cognitive costs associated with exerting cognitive control, individuals typically show a bias toward opting for “low-effort” tasks, while decreasing the subjective value of the expected value. When discussing the impact of costs on cognitive control, it is necessary to consider the trade-off between rewards and costs. Previous studies have demonstrated that this trade-off process may vary among individuals based on their willingness to invest effort and their capacity to exert effort, depending on whether they place a higher value on rewards or costs. Consequently, we have further delineated the control signal intensity to effort levels and introduced the concept of “Subjective Expected Value of Control”, which is determined by the difference between the Subjective Value of Reward and the Subjective Value of Cost. Furthermore, the reward-cost trade-off is inherently dynamic, with individuals adapting their cognitive control with the automaticity of task performance in a given task, or in response to feature transfer across different task situations. Nonetheless, some unanswered questions need to be further investigated. Firstly, the mechanism underlying the reward-cost trade-off requires refinement. As individuals persistently allocate control, their instantaneous subjective evaluation of the rewards and costs expected from the current task may change dynamically. Although several theories have introduced dynamic elements to the EVC model in various ways, a fully dynamic representation of the reward-costs trade-off remains a topic of ongoing exploration. Secondly, the subjective trade-off between rewards and costs can be further modulated by additional individual factors closely related to external and internal motivations. Consequently, it is intriguing to explore how individual differences in reward sensitivity, cognitive need, intrinsic motivation, and opportunity costs may dynamically impact subjective evaluation of the rewards and costs of investing cognitive effort. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Influence of Mobile Phone Dependence on the Development of Social Anxiety in Junior High School Students: Longitudinal Mediating Effect of Body Shame Zeng Yixin, Zhang Bin, Xiong Sicheng, Long Zhuan, Zhang Anqi, Zeng Chengwei, Liu Jiaxi, Yang Ying Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 316-324.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240208 Abstract （1291）      PDF（pc） （1023KB）（1486）       Knowledge map    Save Social anxiety is a common emotional feature in the growth of children and adolescents. It mainly refers to the emotional experience of tension and anxiety when individuals interact with others in real life, which has a certain degree of negative impact on interpersonal skills, personal growth, development potential, and life attitude. In view of the multiplicity of social anxiety and its extensive influence, researchers have paid close attention to it in recent years, and it is particularly important to explore its influencing factors and developmental mechanisms. In particular, indulging in mobile phones may lead to the degradation of individual social skills, which in turn may induce social anxiety and other adaptation problems. At the same time, the propaganda of the ideal body image in media may cause the conflict between the ideal and reality among junior high school students, and deepen the shame of their own bodies. Previous studies have also shown that physical shame may play a mediating role in the relationship between mobile phone dependence and social anxiety. However, most literature still uses the traditional analysis method of comparing the change of mean value, which is unable to provide information of the complete development rate of variables, and it is difficult to accurately grasp the dynamic development process among variables. Therefore, this study intends to take junior high school students as the research subjects, using the two indicators of initial level and development rate in the latent growth model, to examine the developmental trend of mobile phone dependence in junior high school students, body shame, and social anxiety from a dynamic perspective, and further explore the internal mechanisms of the three. Using the Mobile Phone Dependence Scale, the Body Shame Scale, and the Social Communication Anxiety Scale, 339 junior high school students from two middle schools in Hunan Province were followed for three times in a year. All data were analyzed using SPSS 26.0 and Mplus 7.0. The first step is to use SPSS 26.0 for descriptive statistics and correlation analysis. Secondly, using Mplus 7.0 to build an unconditional latent growth model to examine the development trend of each variable, in which the intercept represents the initial state and the slope represents the development rate. The third step is to establish a conditional latent growth model to test whether the development track of social anxiety is directly affected by mobile phone dependence. The fourth step is to construct a structural equation model to explore the relationship between intercept and slope of mobile phone dependence, body shame, and social anxiety. The results showed that: (1) Mobile phone dependence, body shame and social anxiety in junior high school students all showed a steady upward trend, and the initial level and development rate of social anxiety were significantly negatively correlated. (2) The initial level and development rate of mobile phone dependence can directly predict the initial level and development rate of social anxiety respectively. (3) The initial level and development rate of body shame played a complete longitudinal mediating role in the mechanism of the influence of mobile phone dependence on the development of social anxiety. Based on the longitudinal time course and the latent growth model, this study systematically explored the changing track, characteristics, and dynamic relationship among junior high school students' mobile phone dependence, body shame, and social anxiety, and accurately described the development and possible mechanisms of adolescent social anxiety and its risk factors. The results supported the Social Replacement Hypothesis, the Tripartite Influence Model, and the Cognitive Model of Social Anxiety, which has practical guiding significance for deepening the understanding of junior high school students' social anxiety, establishing effective detection and intervention measures, and promoting the mental health development of junior high school students. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Childhood Emotional Maltreatment and Early Adolescents’ Smartphone Addiction Severity: The Mediating Roles of General and Social Anxiety and the Moderating Role of Family Socioeconomic Status Zhou Nan, Zang Ning, Wang Shaofan, Li Zixuan, Chen Ling, Li Beilei, Cao Hongjian Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 325-333.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240209 Abstract （1035）      PDF（pc） （1218KB）（1100）       Knowledge map    Save In recent years, researchers have paid increased attention to the developmental sequela of early maltreatment experiences, including addictive behaviors. Emotional abuse and neglect are particularly influential in shaping children’s later socioemotional functioning because, compared to the other types of early maltreatment, they are more pervasive and their consequences are often not immediately observable. Notably, research on the link between emotional maltreatment and early adolescents’ addictive behaviors is limited in its primary focus on the direct associations, leaving the underlying mechanisms underexamined, and in its lack of differentiation between emotional abuse and emotional neglect. Based on the addiction compensation theory, this study sought to examine the links between early emotional abuse and emotional neglect and early adolescents’ smartphone addiction severity using data from a sample of 844, 7th graders from H province, China. This study also tested the mediating roles of general and social anxiety given that they may exhibit differential roles in explaining how early emotional maltreatment may elevate the risk of early adolescents’ smartphone addiction. Specifically, early emotional abuse and emotional neglect may contribute to the formation of individuals’ shame-based cognitive-emotional scheme, which results in individuals’ habitual hiding from others and ultimately leads to social anxiety. Further, family socioeconomic status (SES) may also factor into the associations among early emotional abuse and emotional neglect, general and social anxiety, and early adolescents’ smartphone addiction. On the one hand, early adolescents from low SES families have limited resources that are unfavorable for development and thus the negative impact of early emotional abuse and neglect, such as anxious symptoms, would be stronger than those from high SES families. On the other hand, the lack of social support in family settings with low SES also may diminish adolescents’ resilience to cope with the consequences of early emotional maltreatment. Thus, the moderating role of family SES was examined in this study. The present path models revealed that early adolescents’ social anxiety only mediated the positive associations between early emotional abuse and their smartphone addiction severity. Moreover, the mediating effect of social anxiety was only present in early adolescents from families with high SES. These results delineated how early emotional abuse and emotional neglect may uniquely relate to early adolescents’ smartphone addiction via their associations with general and social anxiety. The incorporation of social anxiety beyond the general anxiety highlighted the importance of differentiating the two types of anxiety as well as documenting their respective roles. Further, the results also point to the necessity of moving beyond the average population to further explore the potential heterogeneity in the currently examined associations across different subgroups. The findings provide insights for future trauma-informed interventions that aim to reduce the incidence of early adolescents’ smartphone addiction. Specifically, for early adolescents with early emotional abuse and neglect experiences, practitioners should attend to their potential anxious symptoms. Moreover, for early adolescents from high SES families carrying the burdens of early emotional maltreatment, special attention is needed because of their potential social anxiety issues. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Impairment of Prospective Memory by Alcohol Use: Antecedents and Mechanisms Xin Cong, Wang Haoyuan, Zhang Xinyu, Lu Dongfeng Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 267-273.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240202 Abstract （955）      PDF（pc） （337KB）（1107）       Knowledge map    Save Prospective memory refers to the ability to remember to perform a delayed intention at an appropriate time or situation in the future, such as remembering to return a book to the library tomorrow morning or to take a daily medication. Memory failures that occur in the future generate more problems in daily life than memory failures that occur in the past. It has been found that 50~70 percent of real-life memory failures can be attributed to failures in prospective memory. The completion of most activities in daily life is closely related to prospective memory. Previous studies have typically investigated prospective memory using a dual-task paradigm, which included both prospective memory and ongoing tasks. Alcohol is one of the most widely used drugs and has been shown to play a complicated role in mental health and society. The association between alcohol use and cognitive function has drawn attention, and the adverse effects of alcohol use on cognitive function are well-documented. Alcohol use can damage the brain structure and cognitive function, and reduce the individual’s prospective memory performance. More generally, the study of prospective memory failures under alcohol is important to health behavior since many interventions targeted at non-dependent drinkers rely, to some extent, on prospective memory. The relation between alcohol use and prospective memory is influenced by many factors, including alcohol use patterns and doses, other substance abuse, differences in research measures, and types of prospective memory. Successful completion of prospective memory relies on the coordinated functioning of the subcomponents of executive function (working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility). Individuals firstly encode and store prospective memory intentions. When prospective memory cues appear, individuals need to retrieve prospective memory intentions, inhibit the ongoing task, remember the task rules and the responses, and flexibly switch from the ongoing task to the prospective memory task. The cognitive mechanisms through which alcohol use affects prospective memory are mainly related to executive function and attentional systems. In terms of neurological mechanisms, where alcohol use affects prospective memory involves the prefrontal and parieto-occipital cortex, the limbic system (hippocampus, anterior cingulate gyrus, and superior colliculus), cerebral cortical, and medullary substance. A systematic analysis of the factors influencing the relation between alcohol use and prospective memory and a summary of the mechanisms through which alcohol use affects prospective memory is of great value. It may inform interventions efforts that aim to improve the performance of prospective memory in clinical samples of alcohol use in the future. Future research can investigate the effects of alcohol use on prospective memory components by experimental isolation and the separation of prospective memory processing phases in combination with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) brain imaging techniques to understand the specific mechanisms of alcohol use on different prospective memory processing phases. In addition, future research should focus on the differences and improvements in research methods and on factors that improve prospective memory in clinical samples of alcohol use. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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EEG Neurofeedback for Working Memory Enhancement: A Literature Review Zhou Wenbin, Nan Wenya, Fu Yunfa Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (3): 514-521.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240301 Abstract （807）      PDF（pc） （627KB）（863）       Knowledge map    Save Working memory refers to the ability to maintain and manipulate information over a period of seconds. In daily life, many complex cognitive activities such as learning and decision-making need the participation of working memory. Whether working memory performance can be improved by certain ways of training has been a hot research topic. Neurofeedback (NF) is a type of biofeedback that uses the principle of operational conditioning to enable individuals to learn regulating their own brain activity. During electroencephalogram (EEG) NF training, the EEG signals are recorded from single or multiple electrodes attached on the scalp and relevant features are extracted and presented to the training individuals in real time by visual, auditory, or combined visual-auditory forms. Thus, participants can be aware of their brain state in real time. When their brain activity meets some predefined rewarded criteria, they will be rewarded by the feedback interface that presents real time feedback feature, such as increasing the sphere size in visual feedback, music quality in auditory feedback, etc. With NF training practice, they will learn how to adjust their brain activities that underlie a specific behavior or pathology. A large amount of studies have shown that NF training can improve cognitive ability and behavioral performance in both clinical patients and healthy population. Regarding the NF training effectiveness for working memory enhancement, the existing research conclusions are not consistent due to the variations of the experimental design, training protocol, participants’ population, and sample size in the literature. Therefore, this study systematically reviewed previous studies on EEG NF training for working memory performance improvement. It started with the principle and mechanism of NF training and the introduction of the current research progress. Then the article reviewed the experimental results using different NF training protocols including theta enhancement NF, alpha enhancement NF, SMR enhancement NF, beta enhancement NF, gamma enhancement NF and two frequency bands NF protocols. We found that alpha, SMR and theta enhancement NF have shown the benefits on working memory enhancement in most studies. However, a few studies have reported inconsistent results, including the failure to adjust the training EEG feature (i.e. the non-learner problem) and no significant enhancement in working memory compared to the control group. Future research can be conducted from following three aspects. First, the neural mechanism of EEG NF training effects on working memory has not been clear yet. Previous work only examined the EEG activity during NF training and resting periods. Whether and how NF training influences the brain activity in working memory task and results in working memory performance change remains unknown yet. Future work can utilize a variety of imaging methods such as EEG, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and positron emission tomography (PET) to examine the brain activities during NF training, during resting state and during working memory task. Second, the non-learner problem has been reported in a number of studies. Although a few studies have identified some physiological and psychological predictors for non-learners in some NF protocols, the findings cannot be generalized due to the complexity of EEG activity, the variety of participants’ population and inconsistent experimental design. Future work is suggested to utilize machine learning methods to identify the predictors of non-learners in different NF training protocols in order to understand the reason of non-learner problem, and save time and effort on non-learners. Finally, the optimization of training parameters including training schedule and feedback interface, the adoption of randomized double-blind sham-controlled experimental design, clear reporting the experimental methods and results are desired in future NF studies. This review is expected to provide reference and pave the way for future research. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Emotional Arousal and Associative Memory: The Role of Combinatorial Mapping Zhang Yurong, Niu Yuanyuan, Sun Caihong, Mao Weibin Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 281-289.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240204 Abstract （795）      PDF（pc） （744KB）（980）       Knowledge map    Save Previous studies have found that emotional arousal has different effects on associative memory. The object-based framework explains this from the perspective of association type, which believes that emotional arousal will enhance the intra-item associative memory, and will not affect or damage the inter-item associative memory. However, studies which revealed that emotional arousal had different effects on associative memory are not only different in the types of associative memory, but are also different in the combinatorial mapping by reviewing previous studies. In the study of intra-item associative memory, multiple items usually correspond to one source, which is a "many-to-one" mapping, while in the study of inter-item associative memory, one to one item pairs are usually used, which reflects a "one-to-one" mapping. In this study, we intend to investigate whether combinatorial mapping is one of the reasons that emotional arousal has different effects on associative memory. We hypothesize that the influence of emotion on associative memory is not only related to the type of association, but is also related to the combinatorial mapping. To test the above hypothesis, seventy-four participants from Shandong Normal University were recruited. The number of participants was determined by G*power 3.1 software with reference to the effect size standard in previous studies. The experiments were performed in E-prime 2.10. Experiment 1 explored the effect of emotional arousal on intra-item and inter-item associative memory under the condition of "many-to-one" mapping. Experiment 2 investigated the effect of emotional arousal on different types of associative memory when the combinatorial mapping between the items was "one-to-one". Both Experiments 1 and 2 used a 2 (emotion type, negative, neutral) × (association type, intra-item, inter-item) mixed experimental design. Participants were randomly assigned to intra-item association group or inter-item association group. In each experiment, three phases were included. During the study phase, participants were instructed to remember the association between the item and its character (for example, color, font, and so on) or the association between the item and background picture. Then, there was a distractor task which required participants to do the simple calculation task for two minutes. During the test phase, participants were instructed to decide whether the item had presented during the study phase first. If participants correctly judged the old items as old, they continued to do the associative recognition in which participants were asked to choose which form of item was presented or picture was presented simultaneously with the item in the study phase. Experiment 1 showed that when the combinatorial mapping was "many-to-one", emotional arousal enhanced the intra-item associative memory and damaged the inter-item associative memory, which was consistent with the prediction of the object-based framework. Experiment 2 found that when the combinatorial mapping was "one-to-one", emotional arousal impaired intra-item associative memory and did not affect inter-item associative memory, which is not consistent with the prediction of the object-based framework. According to the result of two experiments, it can be found that when the combinatorial mapping changed, the influence of emotional arousal on the association memory would change, too. Moreover, the influence of emotional arousal on associative memory was connected with both the type of association and related to the combinatorial mapping. The result showed that although the object-based framework can better explain the different effects of emotion on associative memory, the explanatory power of the theory still had boundary conditions. That is, the effect of emotion on associative memory was influenced by the type of association and the combinatorial mapping. The findings of this study can be used to further improve the theory that explain the different effects of emotion arousal on associative memory. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Aggression and Malevolent Creativity: A Moderated Mediation Model Wu Jiaqi, Ren Xiao, Gong Zhe Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 367-374.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240214 Abstract （744）      PDF（pc） （876KB）（726）       Knowledge map    Save Creativity, involving individual ability improvement, social development, and national core competitiveness, has drawn a lot of attention in the social sciences. Creativity could have a dark side in its nature, which is termed as malevolent creativity. Malevolent creativity is the application of creativity to intentionally generate products that do harm to others and society. Prior studies have investigated a significant positive correlation between aggression and malevolent creativity. The present study has taken two theoretical perspectives by adopting the General Aggression Model (GAM) and four stages of creative thought. According to the GAM, aggression may increase the risk of malevolent by increasing anger rumination. Anger rumination may play a role of reappraisal in GAM. That is, aggression can lead to anger rumination, which in turn will predict malevolent creativity. From the perspective of four stages of creative thought, anger rumination is similar to the preparation period, analyzing and reflecting on the object of attack or the angry event, in an attempt to solve the problem by means of malevolent creativity. Furthermore, individual differences in effortful control (EC) may moderate this mediation process, in which high EC individuals may be more vulnerable to anger rumination than low EC individuals. In sum, we proposed a moderated mediation model to account for malevolent creativity. Specifically, we test the relationship between aggression and malevolent creativity, the mediating effect of anger rumination, and the moderating effect of EC, in a sample of college students. Participants of this study were 428 college students (Mage = 19.44 years, SD = 1.39 year; 100 males, 328 females). They completed a battery of questionnaires, including the Buss & Perry aggression questionnaire, the Anger Rumination Scale, the Effortful Control Scale, and the Malevolent Creativity Behavior Scale. The proposed moderated mediation model was tested using regression analysis and the PROCESS macro. Previous studies have suggested that malevolent creativity may differ by gender. Hence, the effect of gender was controlled in all analyses. Results showed that: (1) Aggression positively predicted malevolent creativity in college students. (2) Anger rumination partially mediated this association. (3) This mediating effect was moderated by EC, such that it was stronger for students with high EC than those with low EC. The present study is the first to demonstrate the detrimental impact of aggression and the moderated mediation effect of anger rumination and EC on malevolent creativity based on the GAM and four stages of creative thought. Our study provides evidence for the emergence of malevolent creativity through anger rumination. They also indirectly support the dual pathway to creativity model (DPCM), in which anger rumination promotes malevolent creativity through the persistence pathway. Furthermore, different from previous studies, effortful control plays a positive moderating role between angry rumination and malevolent creativity. We infer that effortful control may help the angry rumination individuals to continue processing the task at the unconscious level. These findings have significant theoretical and practical values and can contribute to reducing individual's malevolent creativity. Firstly, the mediating effect of anger rumination suggests that we can intervene in anger rumination from the perspective of negative emotions or cognition by some methods (such as mindfulness meditation), to further prevent malevolent creativity. Secondly, the moderating effect of effortful control indicates that effortful control, as a means of self-regulation, cannot effectively inhibit malevolent creativity, but will make it worse instead. With that in mind, we may consider adopting ways such as catharsis, theorized to be a safety valve, to defuse malevolent creativity. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Chinese Thinking Style and Mental Health: The Role of Mental Resilience and Self-Esteem Huang Lianqiong, Luo Xi, Hou Yubo Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 458-466.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240224 Abstract （739）      PDF（pc） （1319KB）（901）       Knowledge map    Save Extensive empirical studies have revealed the significant impact of mental health on individual psychosocial adaptation. However, with the acceleration of the pace of life and the intensification of competition, Chinese people are confronted with a sharp increase in the pressure from different aspects, followed by mental health problems that are increasingly prominent. According to the Blue Book of Mental Health: Report on National Mental Health Development in China (2019~2020), Chinese people scored significantly lower in emotional experience, self-knowledge, interpersonal communication, and adaptability in 2020 than in 2008. Therefore, it has become an urgent obligation for psychological researchers to deeply explore the factors affecting mental health and to put forward suggestions to meet people's needs for mental health services. Previous studies have pointed out that culture is an organic factor that constitutes mental health problems, and it is necessary to make efforts from the perspective of Chinese culture in order to solve Chinese mental health problems effectively. In view of this, the present study surmises that the Chinese thinking style, which reflects the characteristics of national culture, may be an important factor affecting mental health. The purpose of this study was to examine how the Chinese thinking style, which is influenced by eastern culture, affects individuals’ mental health, as well as the role of mental resilience and self-esteem. In the present study, participants were recruited to participate in the online questionnaire survey through the online platform Questionnaire Star. The data were collected in two waves. Participants completed the Chinese Holistic Thinking Style Scale, the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale, and the demographic questions at time 1. After an interval of one week (time 2), they completed the Mental Resilience Scale and the General Health Questionnaire. Totally 630 valid questionnaires were collected. The results indicated that (1) the connectedness dimension of Chinese thinking style significantly positively predicted mental health, while the contradiction dimension significantly negatively predicted mental health. (2) Mental resilience partially mediated the relationship between the Chinese thinking style and mental health. (3) Self-esteem not only played a significant moderating role in the relationship between the Chinese thinking style and mental health, but also moderated the relationship between thinking style and mental resilience, as well as between mental resilience and mental health. That is, self-esteem played a core role in the present model. These findings not only revealed the significance of Chinese thinking style in affecting the level of mental health but also showed the underlying mechanism of Chinese thinking style on mental health, especially the core role of self-esteem in the model. The results of this study enlighten us that enhancing mental resilience by training and strengthening people's holistic thinking style will contribute to improving their mental health status. Future researchers should further explore the positive influence of thinking style training on mental health. In addition, self-esteem exerts great influence upon Chinese psychosocial adaptation and behaviors, thus it is necessary to pay sufficient attention to the cultivation of Chinese people’s self-esteem in the future. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Developmental Trajectories of Depressive Symptoms among Middle Adulthood: Based on Growth Mixture Modeling Liao Youguo, Zhang Benyu Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 300-307.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240206 Abstract （652）      PDF（pc） （811KB）（691）       Knowledge map    Save Middle-aged people's depressive symptoms have negative impact on children and adolescents' mental health, family harmony, and the whole social mentality. Identifying the developmental trajectories of depressive symptoms can help to design effective prevention programs. Previous studies have reported 3 to 5 developmental trajectories of depressive symptoms among adolescents, early adults, and the elderly. However, whether this pattern can be generalized to Chinese middle adulthood needs to be studied further, based on the findings that the prevalence and influence factors associated with depressive symptoms are culture-dependent. To date, studies on the developmental trajectories of depressive symptoms among middle adulthood are far from consistent. In addition, many cross-sectional studies have proved that depressive symptoms were also affected by gender, residence, the level of education, and other factors. Nonetheless, there are few longitudinal studies conducted to explore the risk factors for developmental trajectories. Therefore, the aim of the present longitudinal study is to examine developmental patterns of depressive symptoms in Chinese middle adulthood. In addition, we also examined whether the developmental patterns would differ by gender, residence, and the level of education. Participants were 10654 middle adulthood (53.4% females; Mage = 43.2 years, SD = 4.4 years) from the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) project conducted by China Social Science Survey Center of Peking University, recruited from 25 provinces in Mainland China. This study adopted longitudinal design at 3 times over the course of 6 years. The data were collected in 2012 for the first time, four years later for the second time, and two years later for the third time. Longitudinal data on depressive symptoms were measured by the short version of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), and the internal consistency reliability of the three measures was between .75 and .79. The growth mixture modeling was used to explore the developmental trajectories, while logistic regression was used to examine the effects of gender, residence, and the level of education. The data were analyzed using SPSS18.0 and Mplus17.4, including descriptive analysis, correlation analysis, logistic regression, latent growth curve model, and growth mixture modeling. The results showed that: (1) The developmental trajectories of depressive symptoms among Chinese middle adulthood were identified with three different patterns: consistently low group (87%), low-sharp increasing group (5%), and moderate-slow decreasing group (8%). (2) Predictors of developmental trajectories with greater symptom burden included female gender, rural resident, and lower education, a larger percentage of the low-sharp increasing group, and moderate-slow decreasing group were females, rural residents and those with lower level of education. The study made contributions to the knowledge on the development of middle adulthood's depressive symptoms in China. It was the first study to examine the developmental trajectories and risk factors of depressive symptoms among Chinese middle adulthood. Our findings have certain guiding significance for the improvement of middle adulthood's depressive symptoms. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Stereotype Threat Triggers Avoidance of Social Comparison: The Role of Self-Esteem and Social Value Orientation Chen Qing, Zhao Yufang, Bao Yan, Zhang Chao, Xiong Weiyang, Wang Weichao, Huang Jinhua Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 342-349.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240211 Abstract （650）      PDF（pc） （506KB）（671）       Knowledge map    Save Stereotype threat stigmatizes the target group and its members and may induce social defense. As a protective mechanism against threats, self-esteem may influence the relation between stereotype threat and social defense, but the direction of this effect may be related to social value orientation. This study examines the effect of stereotype threat, relative to no threat, on the strategies stigmatized individuals use to protect themselves (i.e., the adoption of avoiding social comparison) and the moderating effect of intrinsic self-protection structures (i.e., self-esteem and social value orientation). Two parallel experiments using the gender-mathematics stereotype investigated the impact of self-concept threat (Experiment 1) and group-concept threat (Experiment 2) on social comparison avoidance and its boundary mechanisms, under the theoretical underpinnings of the Multi-Threat Framework. A total of 534 female college students took part in Experiments 1 and 2. Students of non-mathematics and non-psychology majors were selected as participants. Social value orientation and self-esteem were measured 1~2 weeks prior to the experiment. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, all official experiments were made available via web links (programmed in JavaScript) and administered individually by a female experimenter. Participants were assigned randomly to either a threat group (Experiment 1: self-concept threat; Experiment 2: group-concept threat) or a no threat group. Participants first completed threat (or non-threat) manipulation and its checks, and then took a standardized math test and social comparison avoidance measure in order. The threat manipulations used a news digest about “men’s outstanding achievements in mathematics” and test instructions of “anonymous diagnosis of math ability”. In the self-concept threat manipulation, the test instruction was “diagnosis of individual math ability”; and in the group-concept threat manipulation, the test instruction was “diagnosis of group math ability”. The standardized math test with a time limit of 10 minutes was administered, with one question per minute and 4 seconds pause between each question. The avoidance of social comparison was measured by the test-selection paradigm in Experiment 1, which required participants to choose 5 out of 20 Derivative math problems for themselves and 5 for others. Experiment 2 required participants to choose 5 out of 20 derivative math problems for females and 5 for males. The results showed that: (1) both self-concept threat and group-concept threat triggered avoidance of social comparison (p < .05), but the social defense effect of self-concept threat was relatively weak. Self-concept threat only reduced the degree of comparison, but did not affect individuals’ choice of engaging in social comparison. (2) Self-esteem and social value orientation played a co-moderating role (p < .05). As shown in Figures 1 and 2, the self-esteem of individuals with a prosocial-value orientation increased social defenses against threats to self-concept and group-concept, whereas the self-esteem of individuals with a proself-value orientation did not affect social defenses against threats to the self-concept and decreased social defenses against threats to group-concept. This research shows that stereotype threat triggers the avoidance of social comparison, and that the threat defense effect is limited by self-esteem and social value orientation. Stereotype threat is based on stigmatized identities and rooted in the social structure. Its threat effects span time and place, which is very noteworthy. Compared to previous studies, this study extends the effect of stereotype threat from internal negative experiences (such as poor performance, emotion exhaustion, cognitive impairment, etc.) to the level of social connection, and details the differences between the social defense effect of self-as-target and group-as-target stereotype threat, to provide scientific basis for future psychological interventions. Research focuses on the female identity, which is border impermeable, and contributes to the social defense effect of gender identity and even border impermeable identity threats. In addition, this study examines the boundary mechanism of the social defense effect of stereotype threat from the inner self-protection structure. It turns out that the relations between self-esteem and defense is not unitary and that social value orientation plays an essential role in predicting the internal and external value basis of self-esteem, which highlights the importance of considering the value basis of self-esteem in future research. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Parental Psychological Control and Internalizing and Externalizing Problems among Adolescents: The Role of Rumination on Sadness and Anger Jia Qiannan, Huang Yuancheng, Ma Jing, Li Caina Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (1): 70-79.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240109 Abstract （559）      PDF（pc） （767KB）（744）       Knowledge map    Save Previous research has revealed that both internalizing and externalizing problems in adolescence were prominent risk factors for developmental disorders in adulthood. Thus, identifying risk or protective factors of adolescents’ internalizing and externalizing problems would be helpful to provide theoretical bases for prevention programs. Parenting style has been documented to play a crucial role in adolescents’ development. Parental psychological control, as a typical negative parenting style, refers to parents' attempt to control children’s emotions and behavior through psychological means. According to the Social-ecological Diathesis-stress model, parental psychological control as a stressful life event may activate adolescents’ cognitive vulnerability (e.g., rumination), thus leading to negative developmental outcomes, such as depression and relational aggression. Moreover, rumination has been differentiated into sadness rumination and anger rumination. Sadness rumination has been conceptualized as repetitive thinking that focuses on one’s sadness, which will continually exacerbate adolescents’ negative emotions and make them unable to take positive and effective coping actions and gain support from others, thus increasing adolescents’ depression. In contrast, anger rumination refers to thinking repeatedly about anger and contributes to the maintenance and intensification of angry feelings. Adolescents with high anger rumination are more likely to be over-sensitive to negative social situations and to have rapid activation of aggressive schemas, which ultimately trigger their relational aggression. Therefore, this three-wave longitudinal study aimed at exploring the unique roles of both sadness rumination and anger rumination in the relationships between parental psychological control and depression/relational aggression. A sample of 861 adolescents (57% male, Mage =12.73 years old, SDage= .43 years old) was recruited from junior middle school located in western China, Xi’an, and followed for three time points, one year apart. After gaining informed consent from students, their parents, and schools, all participants completed a set of questionnaires which included the Parental Psychological Control Scale, the Sadness and Anger Rumination Questionnaire, The Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale, and the Social Experience Questionnaire in their classroom during a class session. SPSS22.0 was used to calculate descriptive statistics and the correlations between study variables. Mplus 7.0 was performed to examine the hypothetical mediation model. The result indicated that: (1) Parental psychological control increased adolescents’ depression and relational aggression behavior two years later. (2) The mediating effect of sadness rumination and anger rumination on parental psychological control and depression/ relational aggression was only significant for boys. That is, for boys, sadness rumination exclusively accounted for the relation between parental psychological control and depression, while anger rumination exclusively explained the relationships between parental psychological control and relational aggression behavior. Our findings have revealed several new insights into the roles of both sadness rumination and anger rumination in the effect of parental psychological control on depression and relational aggression behaviors in adolescents. We found that adolescents would increase their depression mainly because of sadness rumination, whereas they would increase their relational aggression because of anger rumination. The results not only verified the effects of sadness rumination and anger rumination as two unique structures on adolescent mental health development theoretically, but also provide suggestions for follow-up intervention. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Fear Reversal Learning: A New Method of Fear Regulation Liu Xin, Mei Ying, Wu Qi, Lei Yi Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 494-501.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240228 Abstract （514）      PDF（pc） （436KB）（404）       Knowledge map    Save Fear reversal learning refers to the process in which fear reaction changes between safe and threatening stimuli after the reversal of reinforcement event. It is a novel learning process combining conditioned fear and reversal learning. It reflects the problem of flexibility in fear learning. It is important to flexibly readjust fear behavior when circumstances change. Failure to adapt to the changing environment may lead to anxiety-related mental disorders. Compared with normal people, patients with anxiety usually generalize safe stimuli as threatening stimuli. These irrational fear responses impede the extinction of fearful memory. Therefore, flexible and appropriate responses to threatening and safe signals play a critical role in the adaptive regulation of emotions. Although the paradigm of fear reversal learning has been constantly developed and innovated in recent years, the basic experimental principle still involves the reversal of a safe stimulus into a threatening stimulus, and vice versa. In fact, related studies usually use physiological (such as skin electricity), behavioral (such as anxiety arousal or valence ratings), and fMRI indicators to measure the fear responses. Moreover, considering that fear reversal learning can effectively reflect the individual's cognitive flexibility, some researchers have used this paradigm to preliminarily explore the pathogenesis of anxiety-related mental disorders. The results show that not all anxiety-related mental disorders will damage the individual's ability of fear reversal learning, but the specific reasons should be discussed in detail in future research. To date, fear extinction paradigms are the most common model to study the process of shifting from fear to safety. However, the regulation of fear in fear reversal learning requires more flexible and accurate responses. To be specific, the shift from fear and safety and from safety to fear occur simultaneously. Clarifying the relationship between fear reversal and fear extinction can provide new ideas for the diagnosis and treatment of anxiety disorders. Studies have shown that fear reversal and fear extinction have different neural substrates. the ventromedial prefrontal cortex(vmPFC), the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex(dACC) and amygdala are their overlapping functional brain regions. However, the orbitofrontal cortex(OFC) is the unique functional brain area of fear reversal while hippocampus is that of fear extinction. In general, vmPFC, dACC, amygdala, and hippocampus play a key role in fear extinction. They affect each other and jointly regulate the extinction effect. And vmPFC, dACC, OFC, and amygdala, can be used as functional brain regions related to fear reversal. Specifically, vmPFC is sensitive to CS-. Yet dACC is sensitive to CS+. OFC, and some amygdala cells can quickly adjust emotions and behaviors according to external changes, while other amygdala cells continue to respond according to the initial reinforcement association. In other words, OFC and amygdala are activated to varying degrees in the process of fear reversal, which may be related to the mutual regulation between them. According to the analysis of the existing research, there are three potential directions for future research. Firstly, future research should improve and innovate the research design. Secondly, it should explore whether there are other relevant brain regions based on the existing neural mechanisms of fear reversal learning. And hormone regulation affecting functional brain regions should also be discussed. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Neural Mechanism of Emotion Regulation of Social Pain Mo Licheng, Li Sijin, Zhang Dandan Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (3): 530-537.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240303 Abstract （511）      PDF（pc） （326KB）（383）       Knowledge map    Save Human beings are “social animals”. Social relationships play a vital role in one’s survival and development. Individuals with destroyed social relationships often describe themselves feel like “heartbroken” or “heartache”. This negative "pain" experience caused by the breakdown of social relationships is called social pain. Social pain affects individuals’ basic survival needs, including senses of belonging, control, and meaningful existence. Studies have found that over-sensitive to social pain is related to various mental disorders. Due to the severe impacts caused by social pain, it is urgent to uncover the neural mechanism of social pain and how to deal with it. Neuroimaging studies usually used the cyberball paradigm to evoke social pain in the lab, which have found that anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), especially its dorsal part (dorsal ACC, dACC) and anterior insula (AI) are key brain regions for pain perception and emotion experience. Emotion regulation is an important way to effectively alleviate the painful feelings and negative experience evoked by social pain. However, compared with the neural mechanism of social pain experience, we have limited knowledge about the neural mechanism of emotion regulation of social pain. Uncovering the latter will help to deepen our understanding of emotion regulation and potentially contribute to the development of interventions for social pain relief in clinics. Literatures focusing on emotion regulation in general have demonstrated that people use various strategies to regulate negative emotions; among which distraction and cognitive reappraisal are the most frequently used methods. Neuroimaging studies have found that the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is the key brain region for emotion regulation. Compared with healthy individuals, patients with emotional disorders show abnormal response in brain areas associated with emotion regulation. Furthermore, recent findings indicate that PFC regions, especially its lateral part (including ventrolateral and dorsolateral PFC, vlPFC, and dlPFC) are crucial for emotion regulation of social pain and non-social pain/negative emotions. In addition to PFC regions, emotion regulation of social pain also recruits the social cognitive brain network, including posterior superior temporal sulcus, temporal-parietal junction activity, inferior parietal lobe, and posterior cingulate cortex. Using non-invasive brain stimulation (e.g., transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)) to enhance the neural activation of the vlPFC and dlPFC could effectively alleviate social pain. Interestingly, the vlPFC and dlPFC have been found show functional specificity for reappraisal and distraction. Future studies are suggested to further investigate the following questions. First, it is urgent to clarify the key brain regions involved in emotion regulation of social pain. Secondly, it is necessary to combine brain imaging with brain modulation techniques, together with patient data to uncover dynamic causal model of brain networks underlying emotion regulation of social pain. Third, neuromodulation or neurofeedback techniques can be used in clinics to help relieve social pain and restore social functions of patients. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Pupillary Response and Brain Mechanisms of Cognitive Control Wang Zhijing, Li Fuhong Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (1): 2-10.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240101 Abstract （487）      PDF（pc） （528KB）（450）       Knowledge map    Save Cognitive control which forms the basis of goal-oriented behavior, is closely related to people's daily life, learning, and work, and is a hot topic in the fields of psychology and neuroscience. Pupillometry provides a new perspective on cognitive control. The pupillary response can be divided into two components: tonic pupil size and phasic pupil response. Tonic pupil size usually refers to baseline pupil size, and phasic pupil response corresponds to task-evoked pupillary response (TEPR). This paper summarizes the relationship between pupillary response and cognitive control, as well as the underlying brain mechanisms of pupillary response induced by cognitive processing. Few studies have correlated baseline pupil size with cognitive control, and their results are inconsistent. Moreover, there was no definitive evidence of a linear correlation between baseline pupil size and individual differences in cognitive control. Across the domains of inhibition, switching, and updating, TEPR closely responds to changes in task demands and cognitive effort. In addition, TEPR can also effectively reflect the individual monitoring of error and conflict, as well as the subsequent cognitive control regulation. Many lines of evidence indicate that TEPR provides an effective online measurement psychophysical marker of effort changes in different cognitive control processing. TEPR is positively correlated with participants’ cognitive control task performance, and in some cases, its magnitude can predict the improvement of task performance. However, the relationship between TEPR and cognitive control task performance is influenced by task difficulty, and this correlation vanishes when the task is easy. Thus, individual differences in cognitive control lie not only in the amount but also in the efficiency of cognitive effort exerted, which can be reflected in the TEPR. Collectively, prior research has suggested that pupil response can be used as an indirect indicator of locus coeruleus-norepinephrine (LC-NE) system activity. The combination of EEG or fMRI with pupillometry revealed that the LC-NE system may play different roles in different cognitive control subprocesses. Specifically, the LC-NE system may mainly be responsible for amplifying the gain of relevant information and suppressing irrelevant information in task switching, whereas regulating the motion response process in inhibition tasks. Thus, individual differences in cognitive control are probably related to differences in LC-NE function. Future research could focus on the following aspects. Firstly, various pupillary indexes have been used in different studies, making it difficult to compare between studies. Thus, it is necessary to explore a more sensitive and effective pupillary activity index suitable for cognitive control research and optimize the analysis of pupil data. Secondly, the relationship between baseline pupil size and cognitive control is still unclear. A systematic study is necessary to investigate the relationships between baseline pupil size as well as the variability of baseline pupil size with cognitive control capacity, with consideration of confounding factors and nonlinear correlations. Thirdly, taking advantage of the higher temporal resolution of TEPR to reveal the temporal dynamic processing of cognitive control. Finally, other techniques (e.g., EEG, fMRI, or machine learning) can be combined with pupillometry to advance the understanding of the complex role of brain mechanisms, especially the LC-NE system in cognitive control processing. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Balanced Time Perspective and Mental Health: The Mediating Effects of Emotion Regulation Strategies Li Xiaobao, Lyu Houchao Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (3): 562-569.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240307 Abstract （477）      PDF（pc） （725KB）（607）       Knowledge map    Save Balanced time perspective refers to an individual's overall positive cognition of the past, present, and future, and the ability to show adaptive time perspective depending on a situation's demands. Numerous studies have generally found a positive and strong association between balanced time perspective and indicators of mental health. However, little is known about the mediating mechanism underlying this link. Previous studies have shown that emotion regulation strategies are closely related to subjective well-being and anxiety. Generally speaking, individuals who frequently use cognitive reappraisal strategy are likely to experience better subjective well-being and less anxiety, whereas people who often use expressive suppression strategy tend to experience a low level of subjective well-being and a high level of anxiety. In addition, given that balanced time perspective is closely related to individual emotions, motivations, and behaviors, it may be an important factor affecting emotion regulation strategies. Thus, we hypothesized that emotion regulation strategies would mediate the linkage between balanced time perspective and mental health. To test our hypotheses, a total of 1432 adults aged 17 to 76 years old (Mean age = 29.04 years old, SD = 14.38 years old) participated in the present study via an online survey. They anonymously completed questionnaires regarding balanced time perspective, emotion regulation strategies, life satisfaction, positive affect, negative affect, and anxiety. All the data were analyzed with the software SPSS 22.0 and Mplus7.0. We first used correlation analysis to preliminary test the relationship among study variables, and then structural equation modeling was used to test the mediating effects of emotion regulation strategies in the relationship between balanced time perspective and mental health. Mental health was treated as a latent variable including four indicators: life satisfaction, positive affect, negative affect and anxiety. Results showed that (1) balanced time perspective positively correlated with life satisfaction and positive affect, and negatively related to negative affect and anxiety. (2) Balanced time perspective positively linked with cognitive reappraisal and negatively linked with expressive suppression. Cognitive reappraisal was positively related to life satisfaction and positive affect, and negatively related to negative affect and anxiety. Expressive suppression was positively related to negative affect and anxiety. (3) The relationship between balanced time perspective and mental health was significantly mediated by cognitive reappraisal (in a positive direction) and expressive suppression (in a negative direction). These findings highlighted the importantance of involving balanced time perspective and emotion regulation strategies when explaining individuals’ mental health. In summary, this study confirmed the positive effect of balanced time perspective on mental health and demonstrated the mediating role of cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression in the relationship between balanced time perspective and mental health. The results of this study have implications for clinical practice and suggestions that promote well-being and reduce anxiety by building a balanced time perspective were provided. Limitations and future directions were also discussed. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Thematic Apperception Test for Suicide Risk Identification: An Audio and Text-Based Machine Learning Study Yang Jinying, Wu Wen, Li Shijia, Zhang Ya Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 485-493.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240227 Abstract （449）      PDF（pc） （984KB）（357）       Knowledge map    Save Suicide is not only a personal tragedy, but also has far-reaching effects. Identifying suicide risk is an important part of suicide prevention. Because traditional suicide risk screening methods based on self-report scales have a high rate of misreporting/underreporting, it is important to find an objective and effective identification tool. Although previous studies on the establishment of suicide risk identification models through audio data have yielded good results, the test materials used lacked theoretical support and were time-consuming. Besides, the lack of a standardized process made it difficult to collect large data to train a model that could be applied. Therefore, this study aims to adapt the widely used Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) by two steps. Firstly, adapting the test materials into an online test to build a model, and then developing a WeChat app to obtain high-quality audio data in a standardized process to build a suicide risk model. Study 1 began by adapting a standardized process for online administration of the TAT using the Tencent meetings. The audio of 64 subjects (High Risk Group: 34; Low Risk Group: 30) who completed the test was included in the analysis. After pre-processing, speech and text features were extracted for machine learning modeling, and four classifiers (SVM, LR, RF, KNN) were used to build the model. It was found that (1)Three pictures in the TAT test constructed the best performing classification models. Take Picture 5 in TAT for example, the LR model achieved an average ACC= .80 and an average AUC= .90. The best performing models were LR and SVM. (2) The analysis of narrative duration revealed that the subjects in the crisis group in this test generally had longer narrative durations. (3) Word frequency analysis of the full-length text using KH Coder found more words related to suicide, self-injury, and negative emotions mentioned in the narrative texts of the subjects in the crisis group, and more themes about suicide and self-injury in the narratives of the subjects in the crisis group were found through Keyword Co-occurrence Network analysis. The results of Study 1 confirm the feasibility of administering a TAT online and applying speech and text features to identify suicide risk, but the test is still time-consuming and requires a subject to administer it, so there may be experimenter bias. To further standardize the process, reduce the test time and enhance the convenience of the test, and thus improve the applicability of the adapted TAT, we further conducted Study 2. In this Study, a WeChat app was designed and implemented, and two images from Study 1 (Figure 5 and Figure 10) were used as test materials and administered by the subjects themselves. A total of 58 subjects' audio was included in the analysis (High Risk Group: 29; Low Risk Group: 29). Four classifier models were selected for feature extraction and evaluated for effectiveness. The LR model trained with the data set extracted from the combined audio in Figure 5 and Figure 10 achieved the best results of all models in terms of ACC metrics (mean ACC= .83, mean AUC= .89). The results of the study suggest that modeling using audio data generated from a participant self-administered test can also yield satisfactory results. The constructed model achieved better modeling results with a better composite index compared to previous studies when the test took less time. The short administration time, ease of administration, and standardized procedure of the adapted TAT applet also facilitated the collection of more high-quality samples for the construction of a better generalized model to be used as an aid in the identification of suicide risk. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Psychological Effects and Influencing Factors Of Common Ingroup Identity Zhu Ting, Li Lingzhi, Wen Fangfang, Zuo Bin, Ju Yiyan, Long Jiahui Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 440-449.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240222 Abstract （449）      PDF（pc） （503KB）（415）       Knowledge map    Save Social categorization is a labeling cue for identity in people's lives, and it is also a way for people to develop psychological identity. When individuals gain membership in a group, they tend to compare their in-group with out-group, identify positively with the group they belong to, and give more positive evaluations to in-group members. Common ingroup identity is the positive identification emotion that group members feel toward the new superior group after constructing a new superior group for members of different groups. It can produce positive effects such as promoting psychological integration, reducing intergroup prejudice, and increasing prosocial behavior. Yet, some studies have also found that the effects of common ingroup identity can be short-lived in the face of categorizations that have strong social identity significance (e.g., race and religion). However, previous studies have mostly focused on the positive effects of common ingroup identity, its negative effects have been less addressed. Therefore, this paper summarizes the different effects of common ingroup identity from both positive and negative perspectives, explores the various factors that influence its role, and puts forward directions for future research on common ingroup identity in the context of Chinese ethnic groups. Common ingroup identity is the positive feeling of identification with a new group, which is the result of the process of reclassifying individuals who were previously viewed as members of different groups into a common and superior in-group identity. On the one hand, this reclassification of groups has been shown to be positive. It promotes intergroup psychological integration and thus, increases satisfaction with each other. It plays an important role in reducing intergroup prejudice and easing intergroup relations. It also increases prosocial and helping behaviors. On the other hand, common ingroup identity can also be negative. There is evidence that it can reduce trust, increase intergroup hostility and prejudice, and reduce prosocial behavior due to the emergence of superiority complexes. Based on the two diametrically opposite effects, and combined with some perspectives from ongoing research by related scholars in recent years, the key influences on shared in-group identity are further summarized: individual psychological attributes such as perceived similarity to different groups and motivation to form common ingroups, group attributes such as group size and group status, different situation types, and the methods of reclassification. Common in-group identity provides an important pathway for promoting positive interactions between groups, but it can have both positive and negative effects under different conditions. We need to further advance and explore the areas related to common ingroup identity in the future. We should repeatedly test the contradictory results of the common ingroup identity effect in the and explore the causes behind it. Future studies could explore the interaction of various factors to find the boundary point for different effects and could adopt a new reclassification method to study the important direction of the common group identity of the floating population in combination with the current realistic background. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Task Switching Affects Word Pairs Memory Performance: The Compensatory Effects of Retrieval Practice Xiao Jingjing, Zhang Lijuan, Chen Dengshui, Luo Shuang, Zhang Jinkun Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 308-315.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240207 Abstract （438）      PDF（pc） （651KB）（366）       Knowledge map    Save The widespread application of mobile intelligent terminals has enhanced the efficiency of individual task switching in learning and work. Studies have shown that repeated practice can effectively alleviate the impairment of judgment task switching on both reaction speed and accuracy. For example, repeated practice can reduce the response time and error rate associated with switching from Task A to Task B. Considering that both judgment tasks and memory tasks involve the engagement of executive functions during task switching processes, it remains uncertain whether the practice effect extends to memory switching tasks. Studies on retrieval practice have shown that repeated retrieval of learning content is more conducive to facilitating memory retention than repeated learning at the same time. However, whether this efficient learning method can reduce the impact of task switching on learning costs across different tasks remains to be investigated. This study aims to explore the effect of different practice methods on memory during task switching. This study adopted a mixed experimental design of 2 (learning method: re-learning, retrieval practice) × 2 (task switching: yes, no) × 2 (test time: initial, delay), and recruited 52 college students. The results showed that the memory performance of the retrieval practice group was significantly higher than that of the re-learning group. The memory performance of the group without task switching was significantly higher than that of the mixed group with task switching. Memory performance on the initial test was significantly higher than those on the delayed test. Importantly, there was no significant difference in switch costs between the retrieval practice group and the re-learning group. However, the mixing cost (the difference between the average response time and correct rate on the repeated task between the switch group and the non-switch group) was significantly different, and the mixing cost of the relearning group was significantly higher than that of the retrieval practice group. Based on the results of this study, we obtained three interesting findings. First, memory task switching generates learning costs. In the process of memory, task switching requires learners to spend time activating a new task set in order to complete the task successfully. That is, the activation of task switching takes up more cognitive resources and eventually produces learning costs. Secondly, compared with re-learning, retrieval practice has advantages in the learning process. The retrieval process is not only the process of recalling the content, but also the process of reconstructing the memory content, which is conducive to the improvement of the learning effect. Finally, different from the learning cost of the judgment task, this study found the phenomenon of cost reversal. Previous research on judgment tasks has found that repeated practice eliminates the mixing cost, while the switching cost still exists. However, this study finds that the mixing cost is greater than the switching cost. This discrepancy may be attributed to variations in the nature of the learning materials. Memory tasks have higher requirements for memory load, and the randomness of task presentation makes it impossible for learners to predict the form of the next task. Consequently, it becomes challenging to eliminate the impact of number recognition tasks on memory tasks. In conclusion, this study confirms the impairment of memory caused by task switching and suggests that this may be attributed to the activation of the corresponding task set and their secondary tasks during task switching, resulting in a reduction of memory encoding resources. However, the advantages of retrieval in memory construction and search strengthen memory traces and compensate for the learning costs associated with repeated tasks in task switching. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Effects of Surface Similarity and Presentation Mode on Relational Analogical Reasoning: The Match Effect Xie Weiye, Liu Yucheng, Cai Lixue, Han Linzhu, Liu Zhiya Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (4): 770-779.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240401 Abstract （438）      PDF（pc） （1267KB）（398）       Knowledge map    Save Relational analogical reasoning is the process of deriving a relation from one situation (the source) and applying it to another (the target). Based on the theories of the proactive brain (Bar, 2007, 2009), this study tested the influences of surface similarity and presentation mode (simultaneous versus sequential) on analogical relationship mapping. The study further compared the rate of relationship mapping when an identical match for the key object in the source was also present in the target (Experiment 1) and when an identical match was not present (Experiment 2). The experiments adopted a 2 (presentation mode: simultaneous presentation, sequential presentation) × 2 (surface similarity: high similarity, low similarity) between-subject design. The picture mapping paradigm was a paper-and-pencil test, in which subjects viewed pairs of black-and-white sketches illustrating 30 themes (e.g., hanging an item). One item illustrating a relationship was circled in the source picture (e.g., a hat rack) and participants needed to circle the corresponding item in the target picture (e.g., a doorknob). The perceptual similarity between items in the source and target pictures was manipulated in different experimental conditions. High and low similarity items in the target pictures had the same relationship structure to the circled item in the source picture, but with different degrees of surface similarity. For example, a hat rack in the source image might map onto a bag hook (high similarity) or a doorknob (low similarity) in the target image. As for presentation mode, simultaneous presentation meant that the source picture and the target picture were presented at the top and bottom of a single page, so that participants could easily look back and forth between pictures. Sequential presentation meant that the source picture and the target picture were presented on the front and back sides of a single sheet, so that they could not be viewed at the same time. In Experiment 1, the target pictures always included identical matches for the critical items from the source images (e.g., a hat rack in the source image also appeared in the target image, even though the analogical relationship was to a different object). In Experiment 2, the identical matches were not present: the critical items from the source images were deleted in the target images. The sample sizes for Experiments 1 and 2 were 187 and 183, respectively. The primary dependent measure was the proportion of trials on which items were chosen based on relationship mapping. Experiment 1 with identical matches found that the participants were more likely to choose items with the same relationship structure in the target pictures in the low-surface-similarity condition. Therefore, low surface similarity was more conducive to relational reasoning than high surface similarity. In contrast, Experiment 2 without identical matches found that the participants were more likely to choose items with the same relationship structure in the target pictures in the high-surface-similarity condition. Therefore, in this experiment, high surface similarity was more conducive to relational reasoning than low surface similarity, contrary to the results of Experiment 1. In both experiments, simultaneous presentation was more conducive to relational reasoning than sequential presentation. The comparative analysis of the two experiments reveals an effect, which is called the "match effect" in this study. When an identical match for the critical object in the source image was present, low surface similarity promoted relational reasoning. However, when an identical match was absent, high surface similarity promoted relational reasoning. This effect indicates that the presence or absence of an identical match for critical objects across situations is one of the important conditions for stimulating the proactive brain to explore novel relationships. In addition, both experiments found that relational reasoning performance in simultaneous presentation was better than that in sequential presentation, which indicates that relational reasoning process relies on working memory since sequential presentation requires the participants to hold one image in working memory to compare it with the other. The match effect of relational reasoning can inform education. When people are presented with repetitive and similar ideas, their proactive brains are more likely to function and come up with more novel solutions through in-depth thinking. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Reciprocal Relation Between Executive Function and Emotion Regulation in Preschoolers: A Cross-Lagged and Random Intercept Cross-Lagged Analysis Xing Xiaopei, Zhao Xinyu, Hu Xia Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (1): 80-88.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240110 Abstract （433）      PDF（pc） （1286KB）（522）       Knowledge map    Save As two important components of self-regulation, executive function (EF) and emotion regulation (ER) are closely associated. EF refers to the high-level cognitive processes that are necessary for planning and executing goal-directed behavior, and ER refers to the extrinsic and intrinsic processes responsible for monitoring, evaluating, and modifying emotional reactions, especially their intensive and temporal features, to accomplish one’s goals. Existing, empirical studies have shown that children’s positive EF is conducive to the development of their ER, and higher ER skills can also improve children's EF. However, longitudinal research scarcely explored the potential reciprocal relationship between EF and ER. Moreover, developmental theory is typically concerned with within-person variability, and developmental processes are often assumed to occur within, rather than between individuals. The cross-lagged panel model (CLPM), a traditional method testing direction of effects, fails to separate between-person variance from within-person variance. In this regard, the random intercept cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM) could split the variance of each variable into stable between-person variation, which denotes, on average, whether children who perform better on one variable (e.g., EF) also perform better on the other (e.g., ER), and within-person variation, which denotes changes from one’s own mean level (e.g., EF) during the assessment period as a function of changes in one’s own levels of the other variable (e.g., ER) and the autoregressive effect from the previous assessment point. Therefore, the aim of this study is to use the RI-CLPM to provide a strong test of both between- and within-person associations between EF and ER during preschool period. Meanwhile, we also use the CLPM to test the EF-ER relations to further verify and compare results. In addition, EF components, including inhibitory control, working memory and attention shift, are suggested to be independent of each other even at a young age and also to undergo distinct developmental changes with age. Thus, it is vital to understand how each EF component is related to ER and whether the relations would vary with EF components. The longitudinal sample consisted of 381 Chinese preschool children (Wave 1:Mage = 4.22 years, SD = .46 years; 50.97% boys, 49.03% girls) in Beijing. During three waves, mothers reported children’s EF using the Behavior Rating Inventory of the Executive Function-Preschool Version (BRIEF-P), which included the inhibitory self-control index (ISCI), the emergent metacognition index (EMI) and the flexibility index (FI). Children’s ER was also reported by mothers using the Emotional Regulation Checklist (ERC). The internal consistency was good for both measures at three times. The results of the CLPMs showed that all of the autoregressive paths were statistically significant. With regard to the cross-lagged effects, ISCI and FI were bidirectionally related to ER at T1 and T2, but only the paths from EF at T1 and T2 and EMI at T2 to ER at the subsequent time point were significant, but not vice versa. The results of the RI-CLPMs showed that at within-person level, all of the autoregressive paths were not statistically significant except for the path from ER at T2 to ER at T3. As to cross-lagged paths, FI and ER were reciprocally predicted at the within-person level between T1 and T2, and ER at T1 significantly predicted the within-person changes in ISCI at T2. In addition, at the between-person level, the random intercepts of EF, ISCI and EMI were significantly correlated with the random intercept of ER. In sum, the associations between EF and ER are found to be different for EF components. The associations between ISCI/EMI and ER are more likely to occur at the between-person level, and the relations between FI and ER primarily represent within-person associations only from early preschool to middle preschool. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）