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Influencing Factors in the Allocation of Cognitive Control: Rewards and Costs Si Shuangqing, Zhou Sihong, Yuan Jiajin, Yang Qian Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 258-266.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240201 Abstract （1077）      PDF（pc） （1015KB）（1013）       Knowledge map    Save Cognitive control refers to people’s ability to adaptively employ cognitive resources and adjust cognitive processes in pursuit of goal-directed behavior. Since naturally occurring behavioral situations are constantly changing, people would mobilize their control adaptively. According to the Expected Value of Control (EVC) model, the dynamic adjustment of control can be thought of as value-based decision making, centered on the integration of rewards and costs that can be expected from a control-demanding task. Hence, reward and cost are two key factors jointly modulating people’s motivation and determining the allocation of control. Following this framework but going beyond the EVC model, the current review elucidated the role of various motivation-related factors that can act as rewards or costs in the implementation of cognitive control, and discussed how they collectively adjust cognitive control. More specifically, money, juice, or emotional/social stimuli are extrinsic rewards that can drive cognitive control and improve task performance, albeit with a few exceptions. Considering this complexity, other factors can further modulate the beneficial effects (e.g., reward-poor vs. reward-rich task conditions, the congruity of reward and task performance, and individual reward sensitivity). Besides, in contrast to extrinsic rewards that are manipulated externally, intrinsic rewards are highly integrated into control-related tasks. It can be reflected in people’s autonomic engagement with certain tasks and the positive emotions they generated. In this sense, the investigation of the influence of intrinsic rewards on cognitive control is relatively indirect, which can be achieved by adjusting effort levels and positive emotions. Relatedly, individual differences in intrinsic motivation, as reflected by the need for cognition (NFC), are also closely tied to intrinsic rewards in driving control. That is, individuals high in need for cognition are more inclined to be involved in control demanding tasks and to persist in difficult or unprofitable cognitive tasks. Meanwhile, due to the presence of cognitive costs associated with exerting cognitive control, individuals typically show a bias toward opting for “low-effort” tasks, while decreasing the subjective value of the expected value. When discussing the impact of costs on cognitive control, it is necessary to consider the trade-off between rewards and costs. Previous studies have demonstrated that this trade-off process may vary among individuals based on their willingness to invest effort and their capacity to exert effort, depending on whether they place a higher value on rewards or costs. Consequently, we have further delineated the control signal intensity to effort levels and introduced the concept of “Subjective Expected Value of Control”, which is determined by the difference between the Subjective Value of Reward and the Subjective Value of Cost. Furthermore, the reward-cost trade-off is inherently dynamic, with individuals adapting their cognitive control with the automaticity of task performance in a given task, or in response to feature transfer across different task situations. Nonetheless, some unanswered questions need to be further investigated. Firstly, the mechanism underlying the reward-cost trade-off requires refinement. As individuals persistently allocate control, their instantaneous subjective evaluation of the rewards and costs expected from the current task may change dynamically. Although several theories have introduced dynamic elements to the EVC model in various ways, a fully dynamic representation of the reward-costs trade-off remains a topic of ongoing exploration. Secondly, the subjective trade-off between rewards and costs can be further modulated by additional individual factors closely related to external and internal motivations. Consequently, it is intriguing to explore how individual differences in reward sensitivity, cognitive need, intrinsic motivation, and opportunity costs may dynamically impact subjective evaluation of the rewards and costs of investing cognitive effort. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Influence of Preview on Contextual Predictability Effects during Reading Zhao Sainan, Li Lin, Zhang Lijuan, Wang Jingxin Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (4): 770-778.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230401 Abstract （1000）      PDF（pc） （1514KB）（864）       Knowledge map    Save Most previous research have found contextual predictability effects eliminated in invalid preview which indicates contextual predictability effects depend on valid preview (like normal reading). The researchers manipulated invalid preview conditions by presenting various kinds of words or nonwords that were different from target words in parafoveal vision. It has been well established that invalid preview can cause various costs that may overwrite the contextual predictability effects. However, it is still hard to tell which is the cause of the elimination of contextual predictability effects in invalid preview conditions: the cost caused by invalid preview, or the absence of valid preview. Solving this problem is crucial to understand how the top-bottom predictability is influenced by bottom-top preview information. The present research investigated this effect with incremental paradigm by manipulating parafovea without preview information. EyeLink 1000 Plus eye-tracker recorded participants' (40 participants in experiment 1 and 44 participants in experiment 2) right-eye gaze when they read the sentences that contained target words. Sentences were displayed in Song font in black-on-gray text on a 24-inch ASUS LCD monitor (1920×1080 pixels) with each character subtended approximately 0.9 degrees of visual angle. Experiment 1 was a 2(contextual predictability: high, low)×2(preview type: normal, none)within subjects design. Stimuli were 164 sets of Chinese sentences containing two interchangeable target words that were of either high or low contextual predictability. There was no preview information before directly fixed word in none preview condition, which was different from normal reading pattern and may influence the results. The aim of experiment 2 was to further verify and extend the findings from experiment 1 in a more normal reading form. In order to create a normal reading pattern with minimal interference for vocabulary processing, experiment 2 used meaningless and simple ※ as invalid preview. It was a 2 (contextual predictability: high, low) × 2(preview type: normal, ※) within subjects design. The results showed clear effects of preview type in both experiments with shorter reading times and word skipping rate for normal preview condition, in line with findings from previous studies. It also replicated robust and reliable contextual predictability effects on eye movement time measures (first fixation duration, gaze duration, total reading time) in both experiment 1 and experiment 2, which were contributed to longer fixation durations for high predictability words than low predictability words. More importantly, the current results showed no interaction between contextual predictability and preview types on any measures in both experiment 1 and experiment 2. It suggested that the contextual predictability effects with none preview and ※ preview were similar to normal preview. The results of Bayes analyses also provided strong evidence for the additive models. The key point of present study is the interaction between contextual predictability and preview type. The robust addictive effects suggest the elimination of contextual predictability effects in invalid previews is not due to the lack of valid preview but the overwrite of the invalid preview costs. Therefore, this research indicates contextual predictability influences word processing independently rather than depending on the valid preview information. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Temporal Emotion Asymmetry and its Relationship with Moral Judgment and Value Evaluation Xie Ruyue, Jin Lei, Hao Haiping, Du Gang, Li Xiaobao, Lyu Houchao Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (3): 530-537.   Abstract （953）      PDF（pc） （327KB）（955）       Knowledge map    Save Abstract: Mental time travel refers to the faculty that allows humans to mentally project themselves backward in time to relive or forward to pre-live events. Mentally reliving past events is also known as episodic memory in the literature. Mentally reliving future events is also known as episodic future thinking. Previous studies have found that past and future mental time travels share phenomenological characteristics and activate similar brain parts. Other studies have found differences between them, with individuals leaning more towards the future. Of particular relevance to the phenomenon of future bias are studies that have examined temporal emotion asymmetry. Temporal emotion asymmetry refers to people experiencing greater affect when thinking about the future than the affect they experience when thinking about the past. This is true for both positively and negatively valenced events. Emotion differences between past and future thinking are robust and emerge early in development. Previous studies found that temporal emotion asymmetry appears to be present in children from at least 6 years onward, and once established the size of the temporal emotion asymmetry effect did not vary by age or scenario. This article explains the temporal emotion asymmetry from the perspectives of mental simulation and psychological distance. First, the difference between future and past mental simulation may be an important factor affecting the temporal emotions asymmetry. Mental simulation refers to how an individual projects himself onto different events, spaces, or hypothetical reality, a human-specific ability. Compared to simulating past events, people who simulate future events are typically based primarily on focal aspects of events to the neglect of more peripheral event features or aspects of the event context that might moderate affective impact, and this can systematically lead to overestimations of the affective impact of events in the future. Second, one reason people are more emotionally oriented to the future is that the future is psychologically closer to the past. The reduction of psychological distance leads to an increase in the intensity of emotional experience. TEA can influence temporal value asymmetry and temporal asymmetries in moral judgment. (1) Temporal value asymmetry refers to people’s tendency to value future experiences more than equivalent experiences in the equidistant past. For example, Individuals believe they should be paid more for doing the same job a month later than when they did a job a month ago. The reason why they make these asymmetrical valuations is that contemplating future events produces greater affect than does contemplate past events. (2) Logically, an unethical behavior performed yesterday should also be unethical if performed tomorrow. However, previous studies suggest that the timing of a transgression has a systematic effect on people’s beliefs about its moral acceptability. Future transgressions are judged to be more deliberate, less moral, and more worthy of punishment than equivalent transgressions in the past (we will label these temporal asymmetries in moral judgment). Because people’s emotional reactions tend to be more extreme for future events than for past events, such emotional reactions often guide moral intuitions, and judgments of moral behavior may be more extreme in prospect than in retrospect. Future research directions include (1) Temporal emotion asymmetry under different temporal orientations. Temporal orientation, also known as temporal focus, refers to the degree to which people pay attention to the past, present, and future, as well as the tendency to produce emotional and behavioral responses to these time zones; (2) Considering the temporal emotion asymmetry of depressed groups; (3) Exploring the differences in temporal emotion asymmetry from different perspectives. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Parental Responses to Negative Emotions and the Potential Risk of Personality Disorder in Adolescence Wenjuan Zhang Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (3): 586-593.   Abstract （909）      PDF（pc） （868KB）（1006）       Knowledge map    Save For a long time, clinicians and researchers have opposed giving children and adolescents a personality disorder diagnosis. However, a burgeoning number of empirical evidence made it clear that personality disorders occurred in childhood and adolescence. There are a large body of research supporting the important role of family influences on the development of particular type of personality disorder, especially the relationships between family emotional environment and borderline personality disorders. But it is inappropriate to evaluate adolescents’ personality from the perspective of categorical model of personality disorders, which may increase the stigmatization and impede the development of personality. Dimensional perspective of personality disorders in DSM-5 Section III (Negative Affectivity, Detachment, Antagonism, Disinhibition, and Psychoticism) is considered a better approach to define personality disorders in childhood and adolescence. Because it helps us understand adolescents’ maladaptive personality traits from a developmental psychopathology perspective and connects personality development during childhood and adolescence with adult personality disorders, other than labeling them personality disorder categories. Thus, the present study seeks to evaluate adolescents’ pathological personality traits from the perspective of dimensional model of personality disorders. We aimed to explore the profiles of adolescents’ pathological personality traits and its associations with parents' responses to negative emotions. First, we identified maladaptive personality profiles of adolescents based on 25 pathological personality traits in the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5). Then we further tested the group differences of parental responses to negative emotions on adolescents’ maladaptive personality profiles. Last, we examined the interactions between parental non-supportive and supportive reactions to negative emotions on the development of adolescents’ pathological personality traits. The study was conducted in six middle schools in mainland China. Seven hundred and one adolescents were recruited in this sample. Due to a large number of missing data (> 10%) or suspected random responding, 59 participants were excluded from analyses. The final sample (642 adolescents) comprised the following distribution: 53.6% male, 46.4% female; grade 7 (41%), grade 8 (46%), and grade 10 (13%). The school principals and head teachers coordinated the assessment procedure. All the participants were informed that participation in this study was voluntary and their answers were confidential. Researchers went to each classroom to make the instructions consistent and clear. The Personality Inventory for DSM-5 and Parental Responses to Adolescents’ Negative Emotions Scale were conducted by paper and pencil during regular daily classes in each classroom with 40-60 students. It took about 35-50 minutes to finish the whole questionnaires. We provided free lectures about personality development in adolescence as a reward. The results demonstrated that: (1) three profiles of adolescents’ pathological personality traits were identified: low-risk (25%; low scores across the 25 low-order pathological traits), median-risk (49.1%; median scores across the 23 low-order pathological traits, with the exception of Impulsivity and Rigid Perfectionism), and high-risk (24.9%; high scores across the 25 low-order pathological traits). (2) Adolescents in the three personality disorder risk profiles demonstrated significantly different on all the parental reactions to negative emotions. Specifically, parental warmth/responsiveness and punishment to negative emotions showed significantly different across the three profiles. However, parental expressive encouragement showed non-significant between low-risk and median-risk profiles, whereas parental minimization showed non-significant between median-risk and high-risk profiles. (3) The moderating effect of parental supportive reactions on the relationship between parental non-supportive reactions and adolescents’ pathological personality traits was significant. When parents' supportive response modes were relatively high, the negative path effects were weakened. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Relationship between College Students’ Cultural Orientations and Self-objectification: The Mediating Role of Overt Narcissism Fan Linlin, Chen Hong, Liu Xinyuan Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (3): 619-626.   Abstract （825）      PDF（pc） （791KB）（733）       Knowledge map    Save According to the objectification theory, frequent encounters with sexual objectification will coax people into internalizing a third-party self-perspective and observing themselves through a sexually objectifying lens, a process termed as self-objectification. Previous studies reported that a high level of self-objectification would be detrimental to individuals' physical and mental health, so it is important to explore what factors contribute to the development of self-objectification. At the individual level, cultural orientation is the way in which individuals view the relationship between themselves and the external world, and it includes four types: vertical individualism, vertical collectivism, horizontal individualism and horizontal collectivism. Up to now, little research has explored how cultural orientation at the individual level affects self-objectification, and the results of cross-cultural research on self-objectification are also controversial. Overt narcissism is a personality trait, and previous studies suggested that culture may play an important role in shaping overt narcissism. In addition, overt narcissism affects individuals' body awareness. Several studies showed that overt narcissists think their bodies are attractive and they often have a higher level of self-objectification. In conclusion, first of all, there are controversies in previous cross-cultural studies on the relationship between cultural orientation and self-objectification. Secondly, few researchers have explored the role of overt narcissism in the relationship between cultural orientation and self-objectification. In addition, most studies exploring the influence factors of self-objectification included only female participants, so the relationship between cultural orientation and self-objectification in male groups remains unclear. Herein, this study aims to investigate the relationship between cultural orientation and individual’s self-objectification among Chinese college students, and the mediating role of overt narcissism. In addition, this study further discussed whether the mediation model is consistent across genders. Participants included 1720 college students (556 males and 1164 females) from a certain university. Three questionnaires were used in this study: Narcissistic Personality Inventory, Individualism and Collectivism Scale, and Self-Objectification Questionnaire. These scales had good reliability and validity. All data was analyzed by the software of SPSS 21.0 and Amos 22.0. The results indicated that: (1) Vertical individualism was positively correlated with self-objectification, while vertical collectivism, horizontal individualism and horizontal collectivism were negatively correlated with self-objectification. (2) The mediating effect of overt narcissism was not significant in the relationship between horizontal cultural orientation and self-objectification, while horizontal individualism and collectivism only had a direct effect on self-objectification. Vertical individualism and collectivism can not only significantly predict self-objectification, but also affect self-objectification through the mediating role of overt narcissism. (3) There are significant gender differences in vertical dimension cultural orientation, overt narcissism and self-objectification: Male participants scored significantly higher than female participants on vertical individualism, vertical collectivism and overt narcissism, while female participants scored significantly higher than male participants on self-objectification. The mediating models between vertical cultural orientation and self-objectification have measurement equivalence between genders. These results suggest that self-objectification is affected not only by external social and cultural environments, but also by cultural orientation at the individual level and overt narcissism. This means that individual characteristics also play an important role in the formation and development of self-objectification. Concern for collective goals and interests and concern for building harmonious group relations are associated with lower self-objectification. Overemphasis on the uniqueness of the self and the maintenance of the unique self by means of competition and comparison with others are associated with higher self-objectification. Therefore, from the perspective of constructing the individual-collective relationship, researchers can reduce the level of self-objectification by encouraging individuals to devote themselves to the collective goal in future interventions. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Cognitive Bias toward Body-Related Information of Different Emotional Valence among Females with Fat Negative Physical Self: An Event-Related Potential Study Yao Jiayi, Leng Xuechen, Feng Chengzhi, Feng Wenfeng Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (5): 1026-1035.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230501 Abstract （814）      PDF（pc） （1401KB）（697）       Knowledge map    Save Considering the prevalence and serious consequences of weight dissatisfaction, investigation of the cognitive and neural mechanisms of weight dissatisfaction seems to have important social implications. According to Vitousek and Hollon's (1990) cognitive theory of eating disorders, stereotyped, emotional, and exaggerated evaluations of weight-related information lead to maladaptive schemas related to body shape, weight, and the self. People with maladaptive schemas show an enhancement in attention and memory for schema-consistent information (e.g., fat stimuli) and selectively resist schema-inconsistent information (e.g., thin stimuli). At present, although previous studies have confirmed that people with fat negative body self show cognitive bias toward body-related information, there is still a lack of empirical research on the processing characteristics and neural mechanism toward body-related information of different emotional valence. In this experiment, participants were assigned to an experimental group with high weight dissatisfaction (HWD) and a control group with low weight dissatisfaction (LWD) according to the scores on the Negative Physical Self Scale-Fatness. The final sample included 40 female college students. We employed a modified 1-back task and recorded ERPs time-locked to visually present body-related words, including negative fat words, positive fat words, negative thin words, and positive thin words. The participants were requested to judge whether the current word was the same as the last one. Compared with the passive viewing and dot-probe paradigm, the 1-back task required participants to pay attention to each word, and after reducing the continuous repetition probability of the word, more analyzable trials could be reserved, and the fatigue effect of the participants could be alleviated to some extent. The behavioral results showed that the average accuracy for each group in the current study was over 95%, indicating that participants could complete the task efficiently. There was no significant difference in response time between the HWD and LWD groups. The ERP results showed that body-related words did not elicit larger anterior N1 and N170 amplitudes in the HWD group than in the LWD group, showing that there was no negative cognitive bias toward fatness-related information in the early ERP components related to attentional processing and cognitive resource investment among females with HWD. Besides, in both the HWD group and LWD group, body-related words induced larger P2 and LPP amplitudes and smaller N300 amplitudes than did non-body-related neutral words, additionally, positive thin words and negative thin words induced larger LPP amplitudes than did positive fat words and negative fat words. Since there were significant differences in LPP amplitude induced by different body-related words, the average LPP amplitudes were analyzed by four-factor ANOVA to further distinguish the processing differences between body shape dimensions (fat and thin) and emotional valence (positive and negative). The results showed that cognitive bias toward body-related words was dominated by body dimensions rather than emotional valence in the late processing stage, and the LPP amplitude induced by thinness-related words was significantly higher than that induced by fatness-related words. In conclusion, the present study partially validates the cognitive-behavioral theory. Specifically, in the early processing stage, females could distinguish between body-related and non-body-related information, both fatness-related and thinness-related information were emotionally salient, and under the influence of task demand, the processing of body-related information was suppressed subsequently. In the late processing stage, females invested more cognitive resources toward thinness-related information and maintained more attention to thinness-related information. And the most important finding was that the females' cognitive bias toward body-related information in late processing was dominated by body shape rather than emotional valence. These findings reveal the mechanism of cognitive bias toward body-related information among females with fat negative body self and contribute to the model of the cognitive-behavioral theory of body image disturbance, which may help enhance prevention and interventions for reducing weight dissatisfaction. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Influence of Mobile Phone Dependence on the Development of Social Anxiety in Junior High School Students: Longitudinal Mediating Effect of Body Shame Zeng Yixin, Zhang Bin, Xiong Sicheng, Long Zhuan, Zhang Anqi, Zeng Chengwei, Liu Jiaxi, Yang Ying Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 316-324.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240208 Abstract （797）      PDF（pc） （1023KB）（971）       Knowledge map    Save Social anxiety is a common emotional feature in the growth of children and adolescents. It mainly refers to the emotional experience of tension and anxiety when individuals interact with others in real life, which has a certain degree of negative impact on interpersonal skills, personal growth, development potential, and life attitude. In view of the multiplicity of social anxiety and its extensive influence, researchers have paid close attention to it in recent years, and it is particularly important to explore its influencing factors and developmental mechanisms. In particular, indulging in mobile phones may lead to the degradation of individual social skills, which in turn may induce social anxiety and other adaptation problems. At the same time, the propaganda of the ideal body image in media may cause the conflict between the ideal and reality among junior high school students, and deepen the shame of their own bodies. Previous studies have also shown that physical shame may play a mediating role in the relationship between mobile phone dependence and social anxiety. However, most literature still uses the traditional analysis method of comparing the change of mean value, which is unable to provide information of the complete development rate of variables, and it is difficult to accurately grasp the dynamic development process among variables. Therefore, this study intends to take junior high school students as the research subjects, using the two indicators of initial level and development rate in the latent growth model, to examine the developmental trend of mobile phone dependence in junior high school students, body shame, and social anxiety from a dynamic perspective, and further explore the internal mechanisms of the three. Using the Mobile Phone Dependence Scale, the Body Shame Scale, and the Social Communication Anxiety Scale, 339 junior high school students from two middle schools in Hunan Province were followed for three times in a year. All data were analyzed using SPSS 26.0 and Mplus 7.0. The first step is to use SPSS 26.0 for descriptive statistics and correlation analysis. Secondly, using Mplus 7.0 to build an unconditional latent growth model to examine the development trend of each variable, in which the intercept represents the initial state and the slope represents the development rate. The third step is to establish a conditional latent growth model to test whether the development track of social anxiety is directly affected by mobile phone dependence. The fourth step is to construct a structural equation model to explore the relationship between intercept and slope of mobile phone dependence, body shame, and social anxiety. The results showed that: (1) Mobile phone dependence, body shame and social anxiety in junior high school students all showed a steady upward trend, and the initial level and development rate of social anxiety were significantly negatively correlated. (2) The initial level and development rate of mobile phone dependence can directly predict the initial level and development rate of social anxiety respectively. (3) The initial level and development rate of body shame played a complete longitudinal mediating role in the mechanism of the influence of mobile phone dependence on the development of social anxiety. Based on the longitudinal time course and the latent growth model, this study systematically explored the changing track, characteristics, and dynamic relationship among junior high school students' mobile phone dependence, body shame, and social anxiety, and accurately described the development and possible mechanisms of adolescent social anxiety and its risk factors. The results supported the Social Replacement Hypothesis, the Tripartite Influence Model, and the Cognitive Model of Social Anxiety, which has practical guiding significance for deepening the understanding of junior high school students' social anxiety, establishing effective detection and intervention measures, and promoting the mental health development of junior high school students. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Network of Symptoms for Internet Gaming Disorder, Anxiety, and Depression: Examining Gender Differences Wang Zihao, Yang Haibo Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (4): 999-1007.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.202304029 Abstract （756）      PDF（pc） （1972KB）（787）       Knowledge map    Save It is known that college students' Internet Gaming Disorder is closely related to their anxiety and depression. Previous studies showed that Internet Gaming Disorder has six symptoms, and anxiety and depression also have seven symptoms. However, it is not clear whether these symptoms are related to each other, and whether gender may impact the above relations. This study uses a self-reported questionnaire to investigate the relations among Internet Gaming Disorder, anxiety, and depression in college students. In the form of the Internet, 916 college students (47.16%males; Mage=19.57 years old, SD = 1.07 years old) were recruited from four universities in Henan, Shandong, Tianjin, and Guangdong provinces. The instruments were the Chinese version of the 7-item game addiction scale (GAS) and the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-21). Participants reported their level of Internet Gaming Disorder, anxiety and depression. All measures were carried out anonymously and approved by school administrators. Data were analyzed in SPSS 21.0, Mplus 8.3, and JASP 0.14.1.0. The Latent class analysis was used to identify the risk groups of Internet Gaming Disorder, and the network analysis was used to explore the relations among symptoms. We found that there is a significant positive correlation between Internet Gaming Disorder, anxiety, depression, and there is a complex symptom relationship. In the symptom network of Internet Gaming Disorder, the core symptom of addiction behavior is salience, and the correlation between salience and tolerance is the strongest. In the comparison of different genders, we found that the core symptom of male students was mood modification, and the correlation between salience and tolerance was the strongest, while that of females was salience, and the correlation between salience and withdrawal was the strongest. In the symptomatic comorbid network of Internet Gaming Disorder, anxiety and depression, the core symptom of both males and females is panic, and the correlation between salience and tolerance is the strongest. This study explored the relation between College Students' Internet Gaming Disorde, anxiety, depression, and suggested the important role of salience and panic in these three mental disorders. These findings expand our understanding of the relations among Internet Gaming Disorder, anxiety, depression. Intervention on salience and panic may help to treat Internet Gaming Disorder, anxiety and depression. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Age Differences on Parafoveal Processing in Chinese Reading: Evidence from Word N+2 Preview Benefit He Liyuan, Bai Yu, Zhao Xing, Liu Nina, Wang Yongsheng, Wu Jie, Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (3): 514-521.   Abstract （745）      PDF（pc） （776KB）（653）       Knowledge map    Save Parafoveal processing plays an important role in reading, the information obtained from parafovea is used to begin pre-processing upcoming words and to guide where to move the eyes next. Evidences have showed that parafoveal processing makes an important contribution to skilled and more effective reading. Older adults read more slowly than young adults and also show reduced peripheral visual processing in non-reading tasks. This raises the possibility that visual declines in later life limit older adults’ parafoveal processing. Consistent with this view, studies found that older adults obtain less rightward parafoveal information compared to young adults. Similarly, other studies using the boundary paradigm suggest eye movements are disrupted more for young than older adults when rightward parafoveal information is denied, consistent with older adults processing parafoveal information less effectively. However, several studies provide conflicting findings showing no such age differences, especially about the word N+2 processing. Accordingly, we conducted an eye movement experiment to assess parafoveal preview benefits for word N+2 in Chinese younger and older adults during sentence reading. 40 older adults (aged 66.23±1.83 years) from a community and 40 undergraduates(aged 20.13±1.18years) from a university participated in our experiment. Two groups of participants were asked to read 60 sentences which were presented using the boundary paradigm, with an invisible boundary placed after word N (two-character word), followed by two single-character words (word N+1 and word N+2). Prior to a reader making a saccade that crossed the boundary, word N+2 were shown normally (identical previews) or as invalid previews replacing with a visually similar pseudo-character. The sentences were therefore shown in one of two preview conditions, which reverted to normal as soon as a saccade crossed the boundary. We analyzed the data for sentence and three word regions (including word N, word N+1 and N+2) using Linear Mixed-Effects Models. The results showed that older adults read more slowly compared with young adults, by having more and longer fixations, making more regressions and shorter forward saccades. Moreover, the delayed parafoveal-on-foveal effect occurred for both young and old adults, showing that participants spent shorter fixation time on word N+1 under the condition of identical preview of word N+2 compared to pseudo-character preview, and skipped word N+1 more frequently. However, there was no age difference on the size of effects. Most important, we found age differences on the preview benefit of word N+2, due to an word N+2 preview effect for young adults but not for older adults. Consequently, the preview benefit from word N+2 in parafovea for older adults showed up when they processed the word N+1 but not word N+2. Then we reanalyzed the data for word N+2 when word N+1 was skipped and fixed respectively, and found that younger adults showed robust preview benefit regardless of word N+1 was fixed or not, but older adults did only when word N+1 was skipped. In summary, both older and younger adults can process up to two words parafoveally, however, older adults have difficulty in using the information obtained from word N+2 in parafovea. These findings shed light on revealing age-related reading difficulty in Chinese, and indicated that older readers’ parafoveal processing is impaired which might result in inefficiency word processing as well as the saccade targeting. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Is Marriage the Tomb of Happiness? ——Evidence from CFPS Tracking Data Based on a PSM-DID Approach Deng Xiaohui, Xiang Yanhui Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (3): 635-643.   Abstract （737）      PDF（pc） （1364KB）（637）       Knowledge map    Save The relationship between marriage and happiness has always been concerned by the public as well as researchers. Some studies found that marriage could decrease individual happiness, the others revealed that marriage could increase individual happiness. So no clear conclusion has been reached at present. Previous studies mostly used cross-section data, so this study aimed at using the tracking data of China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) to explore the influence of individual marital status change on happiness. To control the influence of other confounding factors, the methods of Differences-in-Differences (DID) and Propensity Score Matchings (PSM) were adopted in this study. In real life, whether an individual marries or not is not at random, because it may be affected by other covariable factors, such as income, education level, and region. The idea of PSM matching is to convert multiple covariables that need to be matched into an index—propensity score, namely the probability that an individual becomes an experimental group, which in this study is the probability that the marital status changes from unmarried to married. Then, the control group and the experimental group were matched according to different matching methods (such as one-to-one matching, nearest-neighbor matching, K-nearest neighbor matching, kernel-matching, radius matching, etc.). After that, the difference in happiness between the experimental group and the control group was compared by the method of DID, and the pure effect of the experimental treatment (from unmarried to married) was obtained, to reach a conclusion. This study adopted PSM-DID, which not only avoided self-selection bias by means of PSM, but also solved the problems of missing variables and time effect using DID. Besides, it could also answer more scientifically and reasonably whether marriage may lead to the improvement of happiness. The result showed that: (1) the marital status transition (from unmarried to married) could improve individual happiness significantly, which is moderated by gender. To be more specific, happiness increased more in men than women if changing from unmarried to married, of which the explanation mechanism may be related to the health and economic problems brought by marriage. Besides, intimate relationshihp could make people feel more supportive and help improve the physical and mental health, thus affecting individual happiness, which may be moderated by the quality of marriage. What’s more, marriage may also bring more economic benefits for married men than for unmarried men, such as higher wages, and this economic well-being may also contribute to higher happiness to some extent; (2) Increased happiness of men is significantly higher than that of women, the reason may be related to the traditional marriage culture of China and the division of labor between men and women in family structure, which may be the important reasons why change of happiness in marriage is significantly higher in men than in women. According to the traditional view of marriage, men are symbol of power and dominate the family, which could make them be more satisfied about present life after marriage. Therefore, based on the tracking samples in big data for the first time, this study answered the influence of marriage in enhancing happiness, as well as the moderating effect of gender in the relationship between marriage and happiness. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Warmth or Competence? Preference for Warmth and Competence in Cooperation Yan Yiren, Liu Ning Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (3): 594-602.   Abstract （734）      PDF（pc） （530KB）（837）       Knowledge map    Save Warmth (including friendliness, trustworthiness, well-being, and morality) and competence (related to goal attainment, including competence, ambition, intelligence, efficiency) are the two fundamental dimensions (i.e. Big Two) in social cognition. Previous research explored the relationship between warmth and competence and found that warmth judgments were primary. However, there are certain boundary conditions for the primacy of warmth. Previous research indicated that interdependence might have moderate effect on the primacy of warmth, but the conditions under which interdependence leads to a reversal of the primacy of warmth to the primacy of competence have not been clearly answered. The current study proposes the “interest-interdependence hypothesis”, which states that in an interest interdependent relationship, the primacy of warmth is reversed to the primacy of competence. This study intends to compare preferences for warmth and competence in short-term cooperation with strangers and test the “interest-interdependence hypothesis” by comparing cooperation and neutral scenarios. Study 1a explored preferences for warmth and competence in cooperation from the perspective of others and tested the “interest-interdependence hypothesis”. Fifty university students were assigned to 2 (scenario: cooperation scenario vs. neutral scenario) × 2 (dimension: warmth vs. competence) mixed design. Half of the participants in the cooperation group read the cooperation scenario materials and others in the neutral group read the neutral scenario material. Then all the participants received a list of 16 traits (8 on warmth dimension, 8 on competence dimension) and were asked to choose 8 of them. The results of Study 1a showed that more warmth trait words (as compared to words on the competence dimension) were chosen in neutral group and more competence words (as compared to words on the warmth dimension) were chosen in cooperation group. Study 1b used the warmth and competence trait importance rating task to replicate preferences for warmth and competence in cooperation when perceiving others. Seventy participants were recruited and assigned to mixed design (same as study 1a). Participants in both groups read the corresponding scenario material separately (as in study 1a), and then they were asked to rate the importance of 30 traits (15 on warmth dimension, 15 on competence dimension) in evaluating others in the scenarios they just read. The results showed that, participants in neutral group scored significantly higher on warmth than competence. In contrast, participants in the cooperation group scored significantly higher on competence than warmth. Taken together, findings from these two studies provided evidence to support our “interest-interdependence hypothesis” from the perspective of others. Study 2 explored preferences for warmth and competence in cooperation from the perspective of self. Seventy-six university students were randomly assigned to cooperation group and neutral group, and then read the corresponding scenario material separately (same as in study 1a and 1b). Then they were asked to rate the importance of 30 traits (same as study 1b) in evaluating themselves. The results showed that competence traits were rated as more important than warmth traits in both groups, but the primacy of competence was more pronounced in the cooperation group. The present study not only answers, for the first time, the question of which is more important in cooperation, warmth or competence, but also clarifies the the conditions for the reversal of the primacy of warmth to the primacy of competence in the interdependence and provides initial evidence for the “interest-interdependence hypothesis”. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Do the bilinguals have better level of conflict monitoring? Yu Rui, Tao Yun, Zhu Xiaoyuan, Tian Tao Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (3): 522-529.   Abstract （732）      PDF（pc） （364KB）（578）       Knowledge map    Save Conflict monitoring is the system responsible for processing conflict information in the cognitive control system and it is also the basis and premise of cognitive control, which contains the process of conflict detection and resolution. Language, as the most enduring and integrated experience of human engagement, most likely shapes the structure and cognitive abilities of the brain. In recent years, the influence and shaping of bilingual experience on human cognition is a popular research field in cognitive psychology, and the related researches have been greatly increased in both quantity and diversity. To explore the effect of bilingual experience on conflict monitoring or cognitive control, researchers have constructed different theoretical models, which include Inhibitory Control Model, Conflict Monitoring Theory, Adaptive Control Hypothesis, Bilingual Anterior to Posterior and Subcortical Shift Model, and Executive Attention Model. Conflict tasks such as Flanker, Simon, Stroop and ANT tasks are often used as experimental tasks in this field, including consistency conditions and inconsistency conditions. In addition to reaction time and error rate, the indicators also examine the conflict monitoring level include the conflict effect and the consistent sequence effect. At present, whether there exists a “bilingual advantage” in conflict monitoring has aroused heated discussion among researchers. Numerous studies have proved the positive impact of bilingual experience on conflict monitoring. In recent years, many studies have further validated better conflict monitoring performance for bilinguals under certain qualified conditions. These limitations include high monitoring context, appropriate age, high L2 proficiency, interference suppression tasks and lower education level. However, another opinion is that the bilinguals have no superior performance in conflict monitoring. The “bilingual advantage” found by many studies may be due to the following reasons: confusion of demographic variables, uncertainty in the direction of causality, publication bias, statistical problems, and so on. On the one hand, the existence of these arguments demonstrates the complexity of the impact of language on cognitive function. On the other hand, previous studies show that there still exist so many problems to be solved, such as ambiguous differences between groups, too simple experimental tasks and different research methods, which may be part of the reasons for the differences in results. Investigation of this issue is an important verification of the hypothesis of brain plasticity, and an important exploration of language functionality. Therefore, it is necessary to continue the inquiry to obtain more definitive conclusions. Future researches can change trains of thoughts, no longer focus on verifying bilingual advantages, and explore the problem from the perspective that bilingual experience may affect the conflict monitoring function. In future, we should be under the guidance of theoretical models with richer connotation to adopt more longitudinal research. Besides, on the basis of the scientific division of the monolinguals and the bilinguals, we should take language similarity issue into account, and set a task paradigm that can reflect a higher cognitive level for further exploration the impact of bilingual experience on conflict monitoring function. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Capital Letter = Power? The Influence of Letter Case in Brand Logo Xie Zhipeng, Qin Huanyu, Zhao Jing, Wang Jingyuan Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (3): 603-610.   Abstract （709）      PDF（pc） （625KB）（573）       Knowledge map    Save A brand logo is the visual representation of a brand. It plays a massive part in determining customers’ attitudes. In both the Chinese and overseas markets, letter cases in brand logos have puzzled scholars and managers alike. Yet to this day, few researchers have studied the influence of letter cases on brand logo design and its moderators. Based on Symbolic Association Theory, the current research uses 2 experiments to test the correlation between letter cases; customer perceived brand power and attitude. Among existing theories, researchers have focused on the impact of brand logos' color, shape size, clarity, border, orthographic slant and other overall elements on consumer perceptions, but few studies have focused on the impact of letter case type in text brand identity on consumer perceptions and attitudes. Existing theory suffers from 3 deficiencies: first, existing studies focusing on the effect of letter cases attribute the impact mechanism to reading fluency, arguing that the use of capital letters in sentences reduces reading efficiency and thus affects reader behavior and that this effect becomes less significant with shorter sentences and words, while brand logos are usually shorter in length; there are also studies It has also been found that uppercase symbols are more recognizable and memorable than lowercase logos. This shows that the existing theoretical mechanisms are contradictory and not applicable to brand identity. Second, previous studies can only explain consumers' preference for lowercase letters but cannot explain why consumers sometimes prefer uppercase logos. Third, due to the lack of relevant studies, the boundaries of consumer regulation of letter-case brand preferences are still unclear. To fill these 3 gaps, we focus on answering 3 questions in this study. First, how the case of letters in brand logos affects consumers' attitudes. Second, what are the psychological mechanisms involved? Third, what types of brands do upper/lower case logos apply to, respectively? A total of 3 hypotheses are proposed in this paper to address these questions. And this study uses three separate sets of experiments to test the proposed hypotheses. Experiment 1 examines the main effect of case identification on consumer attitudes and the mediating impact of perceived power tendencies, and Experiment 2 examines the moderating effect of perceived luxury. This study confirms through 2 sets of experiments that letter case in brand identity further influences consumers' attitudes toward brands by affecting their propensity to perceive brand power, which is moderated by the brand's perceived level of luxury. Expressly, this study confirms that uppercase letters enhance consumers' perceived propensity to display brand power, while a high propensity to show power is beneficial only for brands with more elevated perceived luxury; for brands with lower perceived luxury, lowercase letters with a weaker tendency to display power are more appropriate. The results show that capital letters are more suitable for brands of a high level of luxury, while for brands of a lower level of luxury, the less persuasive lowercase letters are more appropriate. This research not only expands and enriches the scope of SAT (Symbolic Association Theory) but also provides managers and designers with constructive guidelines for logo design. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Relationship between?3~4-Year-Old Children’ s Temperament and Parenting Style: A Two Wave Longitudinal Study Liu Wen, Guo Xin, Zhang Jiaqi, Hu Wenwen Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (3): 578-585.   Abstract （671）      PDF（pc） （1248KB）（655）       Knowledge map    Save Temperament is a biology-based difference in individual reactivity and self-regulation, which is an important indicator of children's personality and social development. As children develop socialized, they can be modified by behavioral conditioning. Both family system theory and ecological systems theory emphasize that family is the main factor affecting children's development in individual development, especially in parenting. Parenting style refers to the attitude and behavioral tendency that parents show when educating and raising their children. The Transactional Model states that children and parents influence each other dynamically. In this process, the influence of children on parents is equally important as that of parents on children. The two-way relationship between children's temperament and parenting behavior may constitute an interactive and potential causal development path of children's adaptation in a wider developmental context. However, parenting does not happen in isolation, and child characteristics, such as temperament, might shape or evoke parenting behaviors. In turn, parenting behaviors might shape children's temperament, with this transaction between parenting and temperament contributing to children's adjustment. Examination of the relations between temperament and parenting can clarify their unique, additive, and bidirectional relations and elucidate developmental pathways to child adjustment. Throughout the previous studies, most of them examine the unilateral effect of children's temperament or parenting style, and most of them are reflected in the influence of parenting style on the socialization of children's temperament. There are relatively few longitudinal studies on the bidirectional relationship between children's temperament and parenting, and existing studies on the bidirectional relationship generally focus on specific parenting behaviors rather than on more generalized parenting style. Therefore, from the perspective of the developmental Transactional Model, this study will explore the bidirectional relationship between children's temperament and parenting style by using cross-lagged research method. In this study, a total of 293 3~4-year-old children were longitudinal?investigation by questionnaire for one year, two measurements were taken during the period. Children's Temperament Teacher Assessment Questionnaire and Parental Authority Questionnaire were distributed and filled in respectively to children's teachers and parents. All the measures were reliable and valid. SPSS 22.0 and Mplus 7.4 were used to analyze the data. A cross-lagged model was used to investigate the reciprocal relationship between children's temperament and parenting style. The results indicated as follows: there was a significant correlation between the dimensions of temperament and parenting style. Cross-lagged regression results indicated that Time 1 emotionality and concentration of children's temperament could significantly and negatively predict Time 2 mother's doting parenting style. Time 1 maternal doting parenting style negatively predicted the Time 2 activity of children's temperament; the activity of children's temperament and paternal authoritarian parenting style can predict each other, but the influence of paternal authoritarian parenting style on children's temperament activity is greater. Time 1 concentration of children's temperament negatively predicts Time 2 paternal authoritative parenting style, and Time 1 social inhibition negatively predicts Time 2 paternal doting parenting style. The research reveals that there is not only a significant correlation between children's temperament and parenting style at the same time but also a significant relationship with the development of time. This reminds us that children's temperament and parenting style is a dynamic interaction, which plays an important role in exploring the development trajectory of children. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Impairment of Prospective Memory by Alcohol Use: Antecedents and Mechanisms Xin Cong, Wang Haoyuan, Zhang Xinyu, Lu Dongfeng Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 267-273.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240202 Abstract （640）      PDF（pc） （337KB）（755）       Knowledge map    Save Prospective memory refers to the ability to remember to perform a delayed intention at an appropriate time or situation in the future, such as remembering to return a book to the library tomorrow morning or to take a daily medication. Memory failures that occur in the future generate more problems in daily life than memory failures that occur in the past. It has been found that 50~70 percent of real-life memory failures can be attributed to failures in prospective memory. The completion of most activities in daily life is closely related to prospective memory. Previous studies have typically investigated prospective memory using a dual-task paradigm, which included both prospective memory and ongoing tasks. Alcohol is one of the most widely used drugs and has been shown to play a complicated role in mental health and society. The association between alcohol use and cognitive function has drawn attention, and the adverse effects of alcohol use on cognitive function are well-documented. Alcohol use can damage the brain structure and cognitive function, and reduce the individual’s prospective memory performance. More generally, the study of prospective memory failures under alcohol is important to health behavior since many interventions targeted at non-dependent drinkers rely, to some extent, on prospective memory. The relation between alcohol use and prospective memory is influenced by many factors, including alcohol use patterns and doses, other substance abuse, differences in research measures, and types of prospective memory. Successful completion of prospective memory relies on the coordinated functioning of the subcomponents of executive function (working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility). Individuals firstly encode and store prospective memory intentions. When prospective memory cues appear, individuals need to retrieve prospective memory intentions, inhibit the ongoing task, remember the task rules and the responses, and flexibly switch from the ongoing task to the prospective memory task. The cognitive mechanisms through which alcohol use affects prospective memory are mainly related to executive function and attentional systems. In terms of neurological mechanisms, where alcohol use affects prospective memory involves the prefrontal and parieto-occipital cortex, the limbic system (hippocampus, anterior cingulate gyrus, and superior colliculus), cerebral cortical, and medullary substance. A systematic analysis of the factors influencing the relation between alcohol use and prospective memory and a summary of the mechanisms through which alcohol use affects prospective memory is of great value. It may inform interventions efforts that aim to improve the performance of prospective memory in clinical samples of alcohol use in the future. Future research can investigate the effects of alcohol use on prospective memory components by experimental isolation and the separation of prospective memory processing phases in combination with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) brain imaging techniques to understand the specific mechanisms of alcohol use on different prospective memory processing phases. In addition, future research should focus on the differences and improvements in research methods and on factors that improve prospective memory in clinical samples of alcohol use. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Childhood Emotional Maltreatment and Early Adolescents’ Smartphone Addiction Severity: The Mediating Roles of General and Social Anxiety and the Moderating Role of Family Socioeconomic Status Zhou Nan, Zang Ning, Wang Shaofan, Li Zixuan, Chen Ling, Li Beilei, Cao Hongjian Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 325-333.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240209 Abstract （634）      PDF（pc） （1218KB）（683）       Knowledge map    Save In recent years, researchers have paid increased attention to the developmental sequela of early maltreatment experiences, including addictive behaviors. Emotional abuse and neglect are particularly influential in shaping children’s later socioemotional functioning because, compared to the other types of early maltreatment, they are more pervasive and their consequences are often not immediately observable. Notably, research on the link between emotional maltreatment and early adolescents’ addictive behaviors is limited in its primary focus on the direct associations, leaving the underlying mechanisms underexamined, and in its lack of differentiation between emotional abuse and emotional neglect. Based on the addiction compensation theory, this study sought to examine the links between early emotional abuse and emotional neglect and early adolescents’ smartphone addiction severity using data from a sample of 844, 7th graders from H province, China. This study also tested the mediating roles of general and social anxiety given that they may exhibit differential roles in explaining how early emotional maltreatment may elevate the risk of early adolescents’ smartphone addiction. Specifically, early emotional abuse and emotional neglect may contribute to the formation of individuals’ shame-based cognitive-emotional scheme, which results in individuals’ habitual hiding from others and ultimately leads to social anxiety. Further, family socioeconomic status (SES) may also factor into the associations among early emotional abuse and emotional neglect, general and social anxiety, and early adolescents’ smartphone addiction. On the one hand, early adolescents from low SES families have limited resources that are unfavorable for development and thus the negative impact of early emotional abuse and neglect, such as anxious symptoms, would be stronger than those from high SES families. On the other hand, the lack of social support in family settings with low SES also may diminish adolescents’ resilience to cope with the consequences of early emotional maltreatment. Thus, the moderating role of family SES was examined in this study. The present path models revealed that early adolescents’ social anxiety only mediated the positive associations between early emotional abuse and their smartphone addiction severity. Moreover, the mediating effect of social anxiety was only present in early adolescents from families with high SES. These results delineated how early emotional abuse and emotional neglect may uniquely relate to early adolescents’ smartphone addiction via their associations with general and social anxiety. The incorporation of social anxiety beyond the general anxiety highlighted the importance of differentiating the two types of anxiety as well as documenting their respective roles. Further, the results also point to the necessity of moving beyond the average population to further explore the potential heterogeneity in the currently examined associations across different subgroups. The findings provide insights for future trauma-informed interventions that aim to reduce the incidence of early adolescents’ smartphone addiction. Specifically, for early adolescents with early emotional abuse and neglect experiences, practitioners should attend to their potential anxious symptoms. Moreover, for early adolescents from high SES families carrying the burdens of early emotional maltreatment, special attention is needed because of their potential social anxiety issues. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Association between Parenting Stress and Parental Involvement: Do Partner's Coparenting Behaviors Matter? Liu Sihan, Wu Xinchun, Wang Xinyi, Ying Jiefeng Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (4): 857-864.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.202304012 Abstract （621）      PDF（pc） （1567KB）（613）       Knowledge map    Save Coparenting, a multi-dimensional construct where parents raise their children as a parenting alliance, commonly includes supportive (positive) and undermining (negative) coparenting behaviors. The former is defined as the agreement and supportiveness in parenting goals and behaviors, whereas the latter is referred to the disagreement, conflict, and disparagement in parenting. The ecological context of the coparenting framework emphasizes coparenting as an important moderator in family interaction. The fathering vulnerability hypothesis suggests that paternal parenting behaviors are more vulnerable to risk factors than maternal behaviors. However, prior studies have been largely focused on negative factors and rated fathers' and mothers' coparenting relationships as a whole, or averaged their coparenting behaviors to provide a single overall index. Given that fathers and mothers have unique roles in the family, this study compares the moderating effect of the partner's positive and negative coparenting behaviors on the link between parenting stress and parental involvement between fathers and mothers. Families (N = 1554) from different regions of China participated in the study, including both fathers (Mage = 44.21 ± 4.76 years old) and mothers (Mage = 42.17 ± 4.37 years old). Each family had at least one adolescent child aged between 10 and 19 years old (Mage = 14.15 ± 2.45 years old, 52.1% males). Fathers and mothers separately reported their parenting stress via the Chinese Version of Parenting Stress Index-Short Form, coparenting behaviors via the Chinese Version of Co-Parenting Scale, and parental involvement via the Father/Mother Involvement Questionnaire. Data were analyzed using correlation analysis in SPSS 21.0 and moderation analysis in Mplus 7.4. A simple-slope analysis was used to determine the moderating effects of coparenting behaviors on the association between parenting stress and parental involvement. Results showed that fathers' subjective socioeconomic status was significantly related to their involvement, and mothers' education level was significantly related to their involvement. After controlling parental education level and subjective socioeconomic status, fathers' parenting stress was negatively associated with their own involvement (βfather = -.18, p < .001) but not with mothers' involvement. Similarly, mothers' parenting stress was negatively associated with their own involvement (βmother = -.20, p < .001) but not with fathers' involvement. Additionally, the relation between fathers' parenting stress and involvement was moderated by mothers' negative but not positive coparenting behaviors (β = .10, p < .001; β = -.04, p = .076). By contrast, the relation between mothers' parenting stress and involvement was moderated by fathers' positive but not negative coparenting behaviors (β = -.05, p < .05; β = -.01, p > .05). Specifically, compared with mothers' high-level negative coparenting behaviors, their low-level negative coparenting behaviors accelerated fathers' involvement; compared with fathers' low-level positive coparenting behaviors, their high-level positive coparenting behaviors accelerated mothers' involvement. This study found that mothering was susceptible to paternal positive parenting behaviors, whereas fathering was susceptible to maternal negative parenting behaviors. These results extend the fathering vulnerability hypothesis to the parenting susceptibility model. Parenting susceptibility suggests an integrative model to include fathers and mothers, as well as their positive and negative factors to better understand the differences between fathering and mothering. Moreover, the differences and interactions between fathers and mothers indicate the importance of rating their parenting behaviors separately and investigating them in the same model. Furthermore, this study provides significant implications for intervention programs on enhancing parenting behaviors. Programs on improving paternal involvement should particularly consider maternal negative coparenting behaviors, and that on improving maternal involvement should particularly consider paternal positive coparenting behaviors. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Emotion and Individual Spatial Cognition Wang Xuan, You Xuqun Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (5): 1067-1073.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230505 Abstract （596）      PDF（pc） （841KB）（516）       Knowledge map    Save Spatial cognition is a process of processing information from the distance, size, and orientation of the space, and is the basis for people to survive and adapt to the world. As an advanced psychological process, spatial cognition itself is the key research object of Cognitive Psychology. Therefore, the role of emotional factors in the process of spatial cognition has been gradually explored from two perspectives. One is the impact of individual emotional state on spatial cognition and the other is the impact of emotionally laden landmarks on individual spatial cognition. Here, this review will sort out the research ideas from two aspects above. First, we reviewed research methods and results of individual affective states as emotional factors. The main method is to use classical experimental paradigms such as the Morris Water Maze paradigm. Researchers manipulate participants' affective states, crossing valence (happy, sad) and arousal (high, low) by affect-laden images, music, video, and other ways. Then, the participants are required to complete some virtual spatial tasks such as the mental walking task, the landmark position task, the metric judgement task, and the route drawing task. During tasks, the data of physiological indicators such as brain activities and heart rate, as well as behavioral indicators such as accuracy and reaction time will be collected and analyzed. These results show that individual affective state has a certain impact on spatial working memory, the selection and utilization of spatial cues, geographical slant and height perception, but the specific impact mechanism is still unclear. Second, we reviewed research methods and results of emotionally laden landmarks as emotional factors. Landmarks play an anchor role in our psychological representation of the physical environment and provide guiding information for spatial cognitive activities, especially way finding. The main method of most studies is to serve affect-laden images as emotionally laden landmarks, and then ask the participants to complete some virtual space tasks. For example, in an immersive virtual environment, participants are allowed to experience the first-person view to reach a target destination. These results show that emotionally laden landmarks make a difference to memory of landmarks, spatial distance estimates, and reproduction of the path. However, researchers have not yet reached an agreement on whether positive or negative emotional landmarks can improve people's spatial cognition. In other words, little is known about the mechanism of emotionally laden landmarks influencing individual spatial cognition. Finally, based on the discussion above, we proposed the following three future directions: (1) Research in laboratory should be more tended to simulate realistic environments (e.g., using realistic cues such as the sun and building signs). (2) When manipulating participants' emotions, not only the general valence but also the specific emotions could be considered, such as fear, anger, sadness, and so forth for emotions with negative valence, and relaxation, love, happiness, and so forth for emotions with positive valence. (3) Researchers should pay more attention to clinical populations with topographical disorientation disorders as well as to patients suffering from mood disorders. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Females' Preference and Self-Distancing for High Calorie Food after Ego Depletion Wang Caiyu, Yu Qiuting Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (3): 712-718.   Abstract （594）      PDF（pc） （961KB）（742）       Knowledge map    Save Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Influence of Reward Motivation on Automatic Reaction Inhibition Gao Bin, Jia Yingfang, Jiang Yunpeng, Wu Jie Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (4): 795-801.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230404 Abstract （593）      PDF（pc） （1121KB）（507）       Knowledge map    Save Response inhibition includes auto-inhibition and control inhibition. However, many studies have not distinguished response inhibition. Reward motivation can affect the ability of reaction inhibition, but the influence of reward motivation on goal-oriented automatic reaction inhibition is not clear. This research combines reward cues and goal-oriented auto-response inhibition paradigm to investigate the influence of reward motivation on auto-response inhibition. This research included the baseline phase and the reward phase. No rewards were included in the baseline phase to examine whether the flanking letters with nogo color would trigger automatic reaction suppression. In addition, in the baseline phase, the reward standard of the reward phase was adjustable based on the performance of the subjects, and the overall effect of reward motivation can be investigated in the joint reward phase. In the reward stage, reward clues were added to examine the influence of reward motivation on automatic response inhibition. In the reward stage, in order to ensure the validity of the clues and prevent the subjects from taking negative reaction measures (by extending the reaction time to increase the correct response rate to obtain bonuses), the experiment set two reward conditions. If the reaction time was faster than the 30th percentile reaction time of the correct response in the baseline phase, the participant could receive a high bonus of 0.1 yuan. Otherwise, the participant would receive a low bonus of .02 yuan. Participants would be informed of the amounts of current and cumulative reward after each trial. The baseline phase was a two-factor within-subject design of 2 (compatibility: compatible, incompatible) *3(flanking letter colors: red-go, green-nogo, blue-neutral). We used the automatic response suppression paradigm and used E-prime 2.0 software to present visual stimuli. The results showed that the main effect of the color of the flanking letters was significant, and the response time under the conditions of the red flanking letters was significantly lower than that under the conditions of the green flanking letters and the blue flanking letters. The interaction between compatibility and the color of the flanking letters was significant. Only when the color of the flanking letters was green (nogo), the reaction time in compatible conditions was significantly higher than that in incompatible conditions, which may trigger a backward compatibility effect. This indicates that the nogo-colored flanking letters could trigger automatic reaction suppression. The reward stage was a three-factor in-subject design of 2 (reward condition: reward, non-reward) *2 (compatibility: compatible, incompatible) *3 (flanking letter colors: red-go, green-nogo, blue-neutral). The results showed that the interaction between reward conditions and the color of the flanking letters was significant. Under the condition of reward cues, there was no significant difference in the reaction time under the condition of the flanking letter of the color attributes of go and nogo. However, in contrast to our expectation, the reverse compatibility effect disappeared in nogo color flanking conditions for both reward and non-reward cues. In the other two reward conditions, the neutral-colored wings produced a higher interference effect. The results proved that reward motivation only acts on the stimulus with the target color attribute. This study demonstrated that reward motivation had a significant impact on automatic response inhibition, and could flexibly change the coding method of flanking letters with target attributes. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）