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The Study on the Temporal Metaphor in the Process of the Moment: Clock face Schema 2014, 37(1): 2-9.  Abstract ( )   PDF (511KB) ( )   This study used the moment reaction and spatial interference methodology paradigm to explore the specific mechanisms that are involved in the process of the moment. The cohort was 30 students from South China Normal University. The experimental material involved moment and spatial targets. Moment was 24 hours in the form of “9:15”. In Experiment 1 there were other 24 hours in the form of Chinese and spatial target was a block spot, while the spatial target changed into mental rotation in Experiment 2. In Experiment 1 participants indicated whether hours greater or less than 12 o’clock, or minutes greater or less than 30. Following each decision, they identified a target at the left or right of the visual field. We analyzed results by SPSS18.0. When compared the reaction time of hours from different reaction keys, significant effect was found under the different position consistency of hours on clock face and the reaction key, while no difference when indicated different forms of material Participants indicated the hours or minutes faster when their clock face spatial position was congruent with the reaction key than when it was incongruent. While analyzed spatial reaction time, no difference when identified different spatial targets. In Experiment 2 participants should count the variations of hours before indicating like ahead of 10 or 20 minutes, put off 10 or 20 minutes. When compared the reaction time of hours, no difference from different counting types. While compared the spatial reaction time from different rotary direction of counting and mental rotation under 10 and 20 minutes counting condition, significant effect was found under the 20 minutes counting condition, participants identified the targets faster when their rotate direction was congruent with the counting direction of pointer in clock face than when it was incongruent, it means that moment processing interference with spatial processing. While no difference under the 10 minutes condition. These results show that thinking about the abstract concept moment may automatically activate the spatial clock face image schema, and support the hypothesis attention is driven to the clock face schema congruent location of the moment, even disturb process of the spatial when we should pay more attention to the moment indicated task. It demonstrates that moment concepts are grounded in sensory-motor processing, and consequently direct spatial attention to the schema congruent location. The temporal metaphor model is diverse, unlike the linear type in previous studies; it is circular just as the clock face for moment. While thinking about the moment variation, the fresh mechanism is mental rotation just like rotary pointer base on clock face. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Eye Movements and Perceptual Span of Different Font Size Text in Chinese Reading WU JinGen Guo-Li Yan Zhi-Fang LIU 2014, 37(1): 10-15.  Abstract ( )   PDF (383KB) ( )   Abstract The perceptual span is the area of effective vision from which useful information can be obtained during a fixation in reading. Previous studies had proved that the perceptual span will be influenced a function of reading skill, the age of readers, the different working memory capacity and the difficulty of different Chinese materials. However, little was known about the perceptual span and eye movements of different font size text in Chinese reading. Here we reported a study that font size text modulated the amount of information acquired during a fixation in Chinese reading. The experiment design was 2 (font size: 18 and 36 font size conditions) × 6 (display conditions: two characters, three characters, four characters, five characters, six characters and whole line condition)mixed design. The moving window paradigm was adopted. Twenty-four native Chinese readers read 120 sentences under twelve experimental conditions with their eye movements being monitored. Eye movements were recorded by a SR Research Eyelink Ⅱ(sample rate =120 Hz). The stimulus was presented in black on a white background. Participants were seated 70 cm away from the monitor. The whole experiment lasted about 25-30 minutes. The results showed that the perceptual span of 16 and 32 font size conditions was four characters. Compared with the circumstance of the bigger font text (32 font size conditions), there were more fixations, shorter mean fixation duration and total fixation duration, longer mean saccade amplitude(the numbers of character as the unit) but lower mean saccade amplitude under the circumstance of smaller font text (16 font size conditions) . So the tentative conclusion was that the size of perceptual span of the bigger font text was the same as that of the smaller font text, but the eye movement pattern was different. Key words perceptual span, font size, eye movements, Chinese reading References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effects of Endurance Targets on Duration Estimation under Pain Condition 2014, 37(1): 16-20.  Abstract ( )   PDF (275KB) ( )   The Effects of Endurance Targets on Duration Estimation under Pain Condition Abstract Both duration estimation and pain have great significance for human being’s survival. According to most researchers, duration estimation is influenced by many factors, including experimental paradigms, estimation methods, and pain condition. However, most of the past researches, which examined the duration estimation under pain condition, adopted only retrospective paradigm and verbal report method. So, we first want to explore with more paradigms and estimation methods under pain condition. Experiment 1 examined the effect of pain on time duration estimation. 54 undergraduates were required to put their hands in the water and try to estimate the time duration (12 seconds). A 2(experimental paradigms, retrospective vs. prospective) ×2(estimation method, verbal report vs. duplication) ×2(water temperature, 3℃ vs. 31℃) design was taken in Exp.1. All subjects were administrated with prospective experiment and then retrospective experiment. The results showed that there were significant main effect of paradigm (F(1,44)=33.51,p＜.01) and water temperature(F(1, 44) =3.84, p=.056). Prospective judgments were longer than retrospective judgments, and duration judgments were significantly shorter under pain condition than normal condition. In Exp.2, based on the evidence that subjects with certain endurance targets would underestimate the pain intensity, we want to investigate whether the endurance target would improve duration estimation under pain condition. 56 undergraduates were randomly assigned among a 2(experimental paradigms, retrospective vs. prospective) ×2(estimation method, verbal report vs. duplication) ×2(endurance target, 3 minutes vs. no certain target) design. All subjects were required to put hands in the cold water(3℃), and those in “3 minutes” group were told to try to persist 3 minutes, but the subjects in the other group were told to persist as long as they can. As in Exp.1, all subjects need to complete the duration estimation task with retrospective paradigm and then prospective paradigm. The results showed that there were significant main effect of paradigm (F(1,44)=17.02,p＜.01), and the duration judgments in prospective paradigm was longer than that in retrospective paradigm. The main effect of endurance target was also significant (F(1,44)=4.09,p＜.05), and the duration judgments was longer with specific target than that with no certain targets. According to results of the present experiments, the following conclusions can be made. (1) Under pain or no pain conditions, with or without certain endurance target, there are significant paradigm effects, with prospective judgments longer than retrospective judgments. (2) Duration judgments under pain condition are significantly shorter than that in no pain condition. (3) Under pain condition, subjects with endurance targets tend to estimate the duration significantly longer than those with no endurance targets. The results of this study suggest that specific endurance target may help clinical patients to cope with pain. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Time Course of Feature Analysis and Integration in Vowel Category Perception 2014, 37(1): 21-26.  Abstract ( )   PDF (414KB) ( )   Speech perception concerns the process of perceiving phonological units from running and variable acoustic signals. It has been indicated that the perception of phonetic categories experiences several different levels of analysis, including the level of processing simple acoustic feature, the level of integrating complex acoustic patterns, and the level of phonetic category perception. While few experiments examine the time courses of these process stages, which are the critical evidence for the existence of these analysis levels. The present study investigated the time course of feature analysis and integration in the perception of Chinese vowel category. Applying priming paradigm, three experiments were administered, and the spectral similarity and the ISI (Interstimulus interval) between the priming sounds and the target sounds were varied. In experiment 1, the priming sounds were two sine-wave tones, with frequency equal to the frequency of the second formant (F2) of the target vowel /a/ and /i/, respectively. Four ISIs were selected: 50ms, 100ms, 200ms, and 300ms. Participants were asked to identify vowels as quickly as they can by pressing buttons. The results found that the priming effect was significant only for the 50ms ISI condition: the identification of vowels in the matching conditions (the frequency of priming tone was equal to the F2 frequency of vowel) was faster than that in the non-matching conditions (the frequencies of the tone and the F2 of vowel were different). In experiment 2, the priming sounds were two tone complexes, which were composed of two tones at the frequencies of the first two formants of the vowel /i/ and /a/ respectively. The ISIs and the experimental procedures were similar to those in experiment 1. The results showed that the priming effect was significant for both 50ms and 100ms ISI conditions: the identification of vowels was faster when the frequencies of the priming sounds and the vowels were matched. In experiment 3, the priming sounds were the onset 100ms segments of the target vowels, the ISIs and experiment procedures were the same as previous experiments. The results found that the priming effect was significant for all ISI conditions. The results of three experiments indicated that with the increasing similarity of spectra between priming sounds and target sounds (from tone, complex, to vowel primes), the duration of priming effect was lengthened (from 50ms to 300ms). The results not only provided evidence for the existence of several early levels of analysis, but also revealed the time course of these processing stages. Related Articles | Metrics

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Exploring the Effects of Icon Concreteness on the Recognition Process: An Event-Related Potential Study 2014, 37(1): 27-33.  Abstract ( )   PDF (437KB) ( )   An ERP experiment was conducted with the purpose of exploring how icon concreteness impacts on the recognition process. Recognition Potential (RP) is an early event-related potential (ERP) that occurs when subjects see recognizable stimuli. Icon concreteness was defined to be the extent to which icons pictorially represent objects, places or people. Concrete icons are designed to look like the objects in the real world, for example, a printer, a disc, and a stamp. In contrast, abstract icons are likely to use symbols or geometric constructs that do not have real-world references, such as arrows, shapes and punctuation marks. Self-report studies found that people consider concrete icons easier to interpret. However, the priority of concrete icons in subjective preference is not always reflected in behavior experiments. 17 experienced GUI users participated in the research. We adopted a Rapid-Stream Stimulation (RSS) paradigm, a method considered to be helpful in evoking RPs. Stimuli were displayed with a stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) of 250 ms. Test stimuli and control stimuli were presented periodically, after about six or seven background stimuli. The subjects were instructed that, during the experiment, they should press a key as rapidly as possible when detecting an icon. The first recording sequence begins after two trial sequences. An E-prime program was used to determine the order of stimulus presentation, the control rest time between sequences, and the collected behavior reaction data. During the experiment, stimuli were presented in the centre of a 17-inch Dell display. The subjects’ behavioral data were first exported to Excel for pretreatment. EEG data were recorded from a 128-channel Geodesic Sensor Net with KCl electrodes and analysed by a Geodesic Photogrammetry System (Electrical Geodesics Ins., Eugene, OR, USA). The RP amplitude and latency was measured at a 180-350 ms time window at a group of electrodes at bilateral inferior parieto-occipital area (P1, P5, O1, PO3, PO7, P2, P6, PO8, PO4 and O2) for each subject. The static data were exported to SPSS for further analysis. Result show: 1) there was a very significant difference in the RP amplitude for concrete, medium and abstract icons F(9, 480)=27.82, p<.001, η2=0.769, observed power=1.000. The more concrete the icon is, the smaller the RP it evokes. Our finding suggests that less effort was involved during the intermediate visual reprsentation which intergrated information from various pathways and then achieve particular form analysis for concrete icons than abstract icons. 2) The RT was slightly but significant shorter for concrete icons than for abstract icons F(2, 48)=14.854, p<0.001, η2=0.481, observed power=0.998. But concreteness has not significant effect on the RP latency F(18, 480)=1.123, p>.05, η2=0.063, observed power=0.776. The psychological mechanism behind this phenomenon is discussed. According to the results, icons that depict real-world objects can save the cognitive energy of users even though they are experienced. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Perspective Effects of the Four-Card Selection Task：Domain General or Ddomain Specific 2014, 37(1): 34-39.  Abstract ( )   PDF (359KB) ( )   Perspective Effects is a kind of phenomenon which refers to the four-card selection task, when participants to test condition rules from different perspectives, the selection bias steadily changes in the card P, -Q and -P, Q. Perspective Effects has an important impact on the four-card selection task, to the date, its existing conditions and mechanism remains controversial. The current study employed three experiments to investigate the effect of perspective effects on four-card selection task and mechanism remains. Experiment 1 asks the participants to go through different four-card selection tasks of social conversion model, causal model and abstract model in different perspectives respectively to explore the perspective effects. we used a 3 ( rule type : social conversion rule model, causal rule model, abstract rule model ) ×2 ( perspective : P&-Q condition, -P&Q condition) repeated measurement design. P&-Q condition that makes participants more inclined to choose P&-Q combination of experimental conditions. -P&Q condition similar to this. In Experiment 2, we use the same design with experiment1 to explore which condition is easier to generate the abstract rules of perspective effects in the providing of counter-examples and the necessary and sufficient conditions under rich contents of abstract rules. Experiment 3 further studies the essential relationship between the four-card selection task and the corresponding conditional reasoning. In conditions reasoning, we use a 2 (perspective) × 2 (rule type) × 4 (reasoning form) mixed design. Perspective between the variables were tested with two levels (P&-Q conditions; -P&Q conditions), there are two levels of rule types which is the conversion of social contractual and non-contractual society , each rule type has four the form of reasoning, namely modus ponens, affirming the consequent, modus tollens, denying the antecedent . Rule types and reasoning form are within-subject variable. Four-card selection task has the same design with experiment2. The results show that: (1) the results of experiment1 show that the perspective effects do exist in the social contract model and causal model while do not exist in the abstract model. (2) A rich supplying and counter-examples providing are more conducive to generate perspective effects. (3) There is a separation phenomenon between the four-card selection task and conditional reasoning problems, between four-card problem and the corresponding conditional reasoning don’t have a logical consistency. Compared with prior studies, the present paper has systematically studied the conditions which would affect perspective effects. at the same time, by comparing the four-card selection task with the corresponding conditional reasoning to study the nature of perspective effect mechanism. In conclusion, we find that provide counterexamples than necessary and sufficient conditions are more likely to have perspective effect, domain-general and domain-specific cannot fully explain perspective effect of four-card selection task, we suggest the existence of a mechanism to regulate the field of general or special mechanism. Related Articles | Metrics

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Attentional Bias in Individuals with Different Level of Implicit/Explicit Aggression: Behavioral and ERP Evidence Yong ZHENG 2014, 37(1): 40-47.  Abstract ( )   PDF (488KB) ( )   Aggression is a relatively common phenomenon in the general population and usually accompanied with abnormity of cognition and brain. The present study explored into the influence factors and mechanism of different level of aggression in order to advance our understanding of the mechanisms underlying aggressive behavior. 80 participants were split up into two groups as explicit aggression group and implicit aggression group equally, Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ) and implicit associate test (IAT) were used to differentiate participants’ explicit and implicit aggression level respectively, and behavior performance in dot probe task and emotional Stroop task were compared between high and low aggression level participants. In dot probe task, angry and neutral words/faces are simultaneously presented at different spatial locations on screen, followed by a mask pair. After the omission of this mask pair, a dot probe appears at the location of one of the stimuli immediately. The participant is required to respond to the location of the probe as fast as possible. Responding on trials where a probe follows at the same location as an emotional face (valid trial) is compared with that where a probe is presented at the opposite location of an emotional face (invalid trial). The results revealed that high explicit aggression individuals showed significantly longer response latencies than low explicit aggression individuals. There is no difference among high implicit aggression individuals and low implicit aggression individuals. It confirmed that high explicit aggression individuals have attentional bias. In the emotional Stroop task, participants have to name the color of pictures of angry and neutral facial expressions as quickly as possible and EEG was also recorded synchronously. The results indicated that high explicit aggression individuals showed significantly longer response latencies than low explicit aggression individuals on angry facial expression, validating that individuals with high explicit aggression display an attentional bias toward aggressive stimuli. A three-way repeated measures Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) on the average latency and amplitude of emotional Stroop task in implicit/explicit aggression group was conducted respectively, with aggression level (high, low) as a between-subjects factor, and emotion facial type (angry, neutral) and eletrodes (Fz, FCz, Cz, CPz, Pz) as within-subjects factors. The result of the experiment illustrated that compared to neutral facial expression, high explicit aggression individuals showed a smaller N100 amplitude on angry facial expression, indicating that their ability to allocate and regulate attention was weak. The analysis of the P300 components showed that the amplitude was smaller among high explicit aggression individuals than low explicit aggression individuals, indicating aggressive person had cognitive, especially attention deficits. The single ERP study also found that members high in explicit aggression displayed smaller N400 amplitude than low explicit aggression individuals, indicating more resources may be needed for high explicit aggression individuals to suppress outward angry responses. Compared to low explicit aggression members, high explicit aggression members showed lower amplitude on Cz position of N100 and FCz position of N400. However, the result of implicit aggression was contrary to explicit aggression. The results of the present study suggested that N100, P300 and N400 could be used referentially as an objective index for identifying aggressive individuals and the difference between explicit and implicit aggression on EEG provided cognitive neuroscience evidence for the dual aggression model. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Time Interval on the Subliminal Affective Priming Effect by Faces with Different Arousal 2014, 37(1): 48-52.  Abstract ( )   PDF (291KB) ( )   Current research on subliminal affective priming has mainly focused on the contributions of valence congruency to priming. However, many theoretical models claimed that not only valence but also the degree of activation associated with a stimulus, the so-called arousal dimension, plays an important role in affective processing. This study explored the possible influence of arousal in subliminal priming processes. Because many researches proved that SOA (Stimulus Onset Asynchrony) is related to the size of affective priming effect, this study also explored the time course of the subliminal affective priming effect by faces with different arousal. To sum up, we used faces with high, medium and low arousal faces as primes and ambiguous medium arousal faces as targets to investigate the subliminal affective priming effect by faces with different arousal under 200ms, 300ms, 500ms, 700ms four time interval conditions. Participants are instructed to press four buttons in a device to rate the arousal of target faces. In present study, 120 undergraduates attended four tasks respectively. The stimulus came from the Chinese Affective Picture System (CAPS). All stimulus matched in gender, valence, arousal, dominance and attraction. Stimulus presentation and data collection were controlled by a microcomputer running software E-prime 1.0. The data was analyzed by the software SPSS 16.0. The results showed that when time interval was 200ms, 300ms and 500ms, participants showed arousal-consistent changes in affective ratings of target faces. But no effect was present at the 700ms. In the conditions of 200ms、300ms and 500ms, When the value of the prime is negative, larger rating score was found with high arousal primes than with low arousal primes and larger rating score was found with high arousal primes than with medium arousal primes. When the value of the prime is positive, larger rating score was found with high arousal primes than with low arousal primes. But, only when time interval was 200ms, larger rating score was found with high arousal primes than with medium arousal primes, when time interval was 300ms and 500ms, the rating score between high arousal primes and medium arousal primes didn’t different. The results showed: (1) Arousal can contribute to affective priming, and the contribution is different from the contribution of value to affective priming. (2)Affective congruency effect of arousal was observed only at the short time interval, when the time interval is longer than 500ms, the effect will be attenuation or disappear. The findings will help increase our understanding of the subliminal affective priming. In further research, we should focus on the contributions of arousal congruency to priming. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Pain-Related Fear: Dominance in Pain Perception over Psychological Distress and Somatization among Young Adults in China 2014, 37(1): 53-59.  Abstract ( )   PDF (440KB) ( )   Pain perception, including nociceptive component, sensory-discriminative component (intensity), motivational-affective component (unpleasantness) and cognitive-behavioral component, may be influenced by psychological factors such as pain-related fear, psychological distress, and somatization. Though effect on pain perception of pain-related fear has been widely confirmed and thus based its effect on chronic pain initiation, development and maintenance, no studies have yet assured its dominance against other psychological factors such as psychological distress and somatization. One methodological concern with research in the area has been a reliance on using single scales to measure complex constructs such as psychological distress and pain-related fear. Furthermore, a majority of studies have used chronic pain samples, so it is not clear whether possible elevations in somatization, psychological distress and pain-related fear influenced pain perception or resulted from experiences of ongoing pain. This cross-sectional research was designed to clarify these issues within a general university student sample. A pilot study was designed to evaluate the structure and distinctiveness of somatization, psychological distress and pain-related fear using multiple rather than single measures to represent each factor. Then, the impact of each of these psychological dimensions on pain perception was evaluated within a laboratory pain paradigm. 653 university students (69.60% female) completed a battery of five pain-related fear scales, three measures of psychological distress not specifically related to pain, and two somatization scales. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) were respectively conducted on random equal subsets of the total sample to determine whether initially derived factor solutions were replicable in a new group. 8 weeks later, 105 participants (70.45% female) completed the questionnaire battery and Cold Pressor Test (CPT), controlling for order effects. Hierarchical regression models and moderation/mediation analyses were conducted to assess effects of these three psychological factors on four indices of pain perception (i.e., threshold, tolerance, intensity, unpleasantness). EFA results identified a three factor solution consistent with the psychological constructs above. CFA confirmed that this solution had a good fit for the data. The main results were as follows: (1) the pain-related fear and psychological distress factors significantly and positively predicted both pain intensity and pain unpleasantness, but impact of psychological distress were fully mediated by pain-related fear, (2) higher scores on the pain-related fear predicted lower pain tolerance levels to a marginally-significant extent (p=0.097) while neither somatization nor psychological distress had effects, and (3) among participants reporting high levels of pain-related fear, elevations in somatization had significant negative associations with pain unpleasantness. Mediation of pain-related fear on psychological distress may indicate non-pain-oriented factors influence subjective pain experience primarily through their relations with pain-specific factors. The negative association between somatization and subjective pain experience may indicate the tendency to focus on somatic symptoms is a protective adaptation that helps to maintain homeostasis, specifically among vulnerable individuals including those who are highly pain-fearful and undergoing noxious stimulation. Taken together, results indicated that pain-related fear, rather than psychological distress or somatization, was the key dimension associated with exaggerated pain perception, especially regarding subjective intensity and unpleasantness of pain. To cope with accidental pain better in daily life, efforts of reducing exaggerated pain-related fear were recommended. Related Articles | Metrics

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Effect of Emotion-Congruency on Explicit and Implicit Memory 2014, 37(1): 60-65.  Abstract ( )   PDF (397KB) ( )   Employing dual-process signal-detection model(Yonelinas, Regehr,& Jacoby, 1995) to calculate the explicit and implicit memory, the experiment was designed to investigate the effect of emotion-congruency on explicit and implicit memory of individuals with non-clinical depression and participants exhibiting experimentally induced depressed emotion. The word stimuli utilised in the current study were drawn from Modern Chinese Emotion Lexicon. The total set of words consisted of 40 happy words, 40 neutral words and 40 depressed words. Two sets (A & B) of 60 stimuli were constructed. Each set featured 20 happy, 20 neutral and 20 depressed words. Initially, participants completed the Self-Rating Depression Scale. According to scores, 96 undergraduate students were invited to participate in the main study(32 non-clinical depressed subjects and 64 non-depressed subjects). Half of non-depressed subjects were allocated into induced depressed group and induced by film segments. All participants were then presented with one of sets of words(randomly assigned to view either set A or B) and asked to rate by seven-point. Following the encoding phase, there was a 3-minute delay period, during which time participants were asked to count the○, ▲, ■,& ★. At memory testing, participants were presented with the appropriate set of words (consisted of 30 familiar from encoding set plus 30 novel distracters from the other set) one at a time in a random order and keyed-in their “old” and “new” responses using the labelled keys, according to the test instructions(either inclusion or exclusion). Once the recognition memory phase of experiment was completed, participants were thanked for their participation. The dual-process signal-detection model was used to computed parameters of explicit and implicit memory based on the proportion of “old”responses. A series of 3(group; non-clinical depressed vs. induced depressed vs. non-depressed) × 3(word valence; happy vs. neutral vs. depressed) mixed factorial ANOVA were conducted to analyse the emotion-congruency on explicit and implicit memory. The results showed that (1) non-clinical depressed subjects and induced depressed subjects could recollect more depressed words than neutral and happy words(p < .01); (2) the increase in familiarity of depressed words is higher than neutral and happy words in non-clinical depressed group and induced depressed group(p < .01), and higher than depressed words in control group(p < .01).Thus, the study indicated the presence of emotion-congruent effect in explicit and implicit memory, and both in non-clinical depressed people and induced depressed people. Related Articles | Metrics

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Multifinality Effect in Implicit and Explicit Choice 2014, 37(1): 66-72.  Abstract ( )   PDF (461KB) ( )   This research examines the possibility that people’s choices in the service of an explicit focal goal may also reflect their tendency to fulfill implicit background goals and in that sense are multifinal. In fact, though not generally depicted in these terms, participants’ behavior in numerous goal-priming studies may reflect a concern for multifinality. In a typical such study, participants are explicitly assigned some focal goal, and they are additionally primed with a background goal of which they are unaware. Participants’ behavior in such a situation appears to aim at satisfying both objectives: to pursue the focal goal by engaging in the experimental task as instructed and to do it in a way that satisfies the primed background goal. We carried out 2 experimental studies to investigate this notion. In Experiment 1, a primed implicit goal affected individuals’ choices even when those avowedly served an explicit “focal” goal. we created conditions in which such goals were manipulated. Specifically, we varied participants’ desire to identify or disidentify with their country as an implicit goal, while keeping the goal of discovering the more durable of two papers as an explicit focal goal at the forefront of their consciousness. Experiment 2, via 3 types of control groups, showed that choices were affected by both the explicit and implicit goals in isolation, and they shifted toward multifinality when these goals were conjointly present. Participants were told that they would participate in a series of three unrelated brief studies. Their task was to role play the chief executive officer of a company and select the best hire among four applicants for a job in the company. In one condition, participants were told that the company was chemistry in nature. In another condition, the company’s specific character was not described to participants. Participants were then provided with the applicants’ grades in four subjects. The overall grades of the four applicants were equal in that each received two As and two Bs across the four subjects. However, the instrumentality of their grades to participants’ goals varied according to our experimental design. In experiment 1, we discover that consistent with our predictions, 85.71% of participants in the proud condition and only 25.71% of those in the vandalism condition chose the red patch, affording an expression of identification with their country as the more durable one. In experiment 2, we discover that consistent with our predictions. In the zero-treatment condition, participants’ choices of the four applicants did not significantly differ. However, when participants’ explicit goal was to make the best hire for a chemistry company, the majority of participants chose either one or the other of the two applicants with an A in chemistry. Of greater interest, when participants’ goal of identifying with country was implicitly activated, the majority of participants chose one of the two applicants who received an A in Chinese history. Of greatest present interest, when participants’ explicit and implicit goals were both present, the majority of participants chose the applicant who received As in both Chinese history and chemistry.The discussion considers the integrative potential of the multifinality framework and its implications for a variety of phenomena in the domain of motivated cognition. The present findings lend consistent support to our analysis. The present research explored the multifinality principle in choice behavior. It examined the possibility that while pursuing explicit focal goals, individuals may concomitantly attempt to satisfy their implicit background goals that have been activated in the situation and of whose influence the actors may not be aware. We investigated these effects in a choice context wherein the different options were explicitly identified and hence were likely highly salient for the individuals. The goal-priming manipulation not only introduces an implicit goal whose attainment adds value to the behavior’s consequences along the logic of the multifinality principle, but also activates the relevant behavioral tendency to begin with. Related Articles | Metrics

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Three Hypothetical Effect Theory and its development of the Time Course of Inhibition of Return liu xingjuan Yang Zhang 2014, 37(1): 73-77.  Abstract ( )   PDF (317KB) ( )   Location-based inhibition of return (IOR) refers to a slowed response to a target appearing at a previously attended location. A lot of studies that focus on the factors underline the time course of IOR, why the time course of IOR in discrimination tasks IOR time is later than the time course of IOR in detection tasks is one hot issue. One way to explain this result is re-orienting hypothesis theory. According to this theory, attention is captured by a peripheral cue, which produces facilitation. However, following disengagement of attention from the cued location, attention is inhibited from returning. By this framework, the emergence of IOR at the longer SOA in discrimination tasks could suggest that attention is disengaged from the cued location later in discrimination tasks than in detection tasks. However, a similar time course of IOR is observed for targets appearing as expected which attention has not been disengaged, suggesting that disengagement of attention is not sufficient for IOR. Another way is three hypothetical effects theory, which suggests that the time course of IOR is influenced by spatial orienting benefit, onset detection cost and spatial selection benefit. Peripheral cues trigger a short-lived exogenous spatial orienting of attention, thus improving target perception and/or responses to it, which is called “spatial orienting benefit”. However, a peripheral cue can lead to other effects on the processing of subsequent stimuli appearing at the same location. The cue-target integration process would facilitate processing by helping to select the target location in advance, an effect that is represented as the “spatial selection benefit”. However, the integration of the target within the cue representation would produce a cost in detecting the onset of the target, which is “onset detection cost”. The facilitation or inhibition of responses to peripherally cued targets would result from the sum of the detection cost, spatial benefit, and spatial orienting benefit. Spatial selective benefits would be more pronounced in discrimination tasks whereas the detection costs would be more pronounced in detection tasks. Although three hypothetical effects theory have great advantages to explain the mechanism of the time course of IOR compared to other theories, but when the interference was presented, subject’ attentional control settings influence the time course of IOR. While, interference effect of different perceptual load, especially the low perceptual load was influenced by the cognitive control of subjects. Three hypothetical effects theory should be developed to four hypothetical effects theory, including spatial orienting benefit, onset detection cost, spatial selection benefit and top-to-down tasks need. Related Articles | Metrics

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Delay of Gratification: Self-regulation Based on The Future Time Perspective Hou-Chao LV 2014, 37(1): 78-82.  Abstract ( )   PDF (335KB) ( )   Delay of gratification which is based on future-oriented self-regulation largely refers to the tendency to postpone immediate satisfaction and persist in goal-directed behavior in order to obtain more valuable reward. As a kind of self-regulation, it can transform individual’s future goals and beliefs into actual self-regulation behavior and is directly affected by future time perspective(FTP). The impact of FTP on delay of gratification can be explained by various theories, such as expected-value theory, construal-level theory and self-regulation cyclical model. According to expected-value theory, in the cognitive aspect, individuals with a long FTP formulate longer means-goals structures and are perceived as more instrumental to delay goals; in the dynamic aspect, although the anticipated value the delayed reward decreased with increasing delay intervals, this decrease is less steep for individuals with a long FTP because a given temporal interval to the distant future is psychologically shorter for them. Construal-level theory suggests that psychologically distant events are represented by high-level construals and that construals have systematic effects on judgments and decisions. In line with CLT, if temporally distant events activate high-level construals, participants should prefer high-level rather than low-level action identi?cations for such events. Hence, a shift in focus to the future should promote greater preferences for a larger but delayed utility (a high-level construal) over a more immediate but smaller grati?cation (a low-level construal). Zimmerman’s self-regulation cyclical model can also explain the impact of FTP on delay of gratification. This model proposes that delay of gratification is a self-regulatory process that must be self-monitored during task performance and altered as needed. It involves three phases: during the forethought phase, individuals with a long FTP are more engaged in task analysis, and develop self-motivational beliefs to achieve delay goals; during the performance phase, adopting an FTP is associated with individuals engaging in volitional control processes such as self-instruction, self-recording, and self-experimentation; during the self-re?ection phase, in term of delay goals, having an extended FTP is characterized by evaluating one’s action and progress, examining causal attributions, evaluating the level of satisfaction with task completion, and developing an adaptive or defensive reaction toward the performance. Apart from the behavioral mechanism, delay of gratification and FTP involve similar neural mechanism, like ventral prefrontal-striatum circuitry. In addition, the insula and striatum involve in the assess of delay reward: ventroanterior regions were involved in predicting immediate rewards and dorsoposterior regions were involved in predicting future rewards. Researchers suggest that the areas within the limbic loop, such as ventral striatum, are involved in immediate time prediction. On the other hand, areas within the cognitive and motor loops, including dorsal striatum, are involved in future time prediction. Future studies need to further enrich theoretical research on delay of gratification, elaborate its complicated relationship with every dimensions of time perspective, and explore same and different neurophysiology mechanisms as FTP to facilitate its practical value. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Substitution Effects of Intuition and Deliberation in Escape Decision-making Shi CHEN Hong Li 2014, 37(1): 83-87.  Abstract ( )   PDF (286KB) ( )   Based on the Dual-process theory, the current studies of interactions between intuition and deliberation mostly focused on independent and combination function of each other, but only a few works were related to the sequential relationship, and even less discussion was under emergency. The purpose of this study is to explore the Substitution Effects of intuition and deliberation sequential decision-making under an escape condition. The Substitution Effects of intuition and deliberation is a phenomenon that the former intuitive decision-making results are substituted by the latter deliberative process. However, sometimes the substitution effects might reverse as the latter deliberation be influenced by the former intuition. In addition, former studies showed that different presentations of information influenced the individual’s judgment and decision-making. Thus, this study discusses the influence of different forms of information on the Substitution Effects. In this study, the information presented is classified as explicit and implicit clues by clarity. Overall, 180 subjects are recruited for the main study. Two preliminary experiments and two main ones are conducted. The two preliminary experiments are to construct the explicit and implicit escape information clues during a fire hazard. The explicit information clues consist of three main escape ways: running to the exit, avoiding the smoke, and following the people. The implicit information clues consist of 18 words corresponding to the explicit ones. The two main experiments are to explore the Substitution Effects of intuition and deliberation when people make escape decisions with explicit and implicit information clues presented. Each main experiment contains three groups of intuition, deliberation and deliberation-after-intuition. The main findings are: (1) With explicit escape information clues presented, significantly fewer subjects choose “following the people” on the conditions of intuition-after-deliberation and deliberation, compared with the intuition condition, but no significant differences on the other two choices. (2) With implicit escape information clues presented, there are some significant differences between intuition and deliberation, but no significant differences between intuition and deliberation-after-intuition. The conclusions are: (1) Deliberation partly substitutes the former intuition when explicit information clues are presented in a fire escape situation. (2) With some implicit information clues presented, deliberation does not substitute the former intuition but is covered by the former one in a fire escape situation, which can be called the Reverse Substitution Effect. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Roles of FFA in Four Different Aspects of Face Cognition 2014, 37(1): 88-93.  Abstract ( )   PDF (382KB) ( )   Facial stimuli are quite different from usual objects, and the purpose of perceiving human facial stimuli is also very different from that of perceiving usual objects. We perceive objects is just to understand what and where they are, but when we perceive a human face, in addition to identifying a face, we also want to know how it differs from other faces. Sometimes we want to infer the information about age, sexuality, or race from the face. More importantly, we need to understand the facial expressions, especially the emotions that faces express, so that we can react appropriately when we communicate with others face to face. Considering these purposes of face perception, we propose that face perception includes the following four aspects: face detection, physical attributes detection, biological attributes detection, and social attributes detection. This may help scientists to clarify the roles of related brain areas including FFA in face perception more clearly. Although FFA is a core brain area for face processing, its exact roles remain unclear. We reviewed related studies and analyzed FFA’s roles in the four aspects of face perception. Firstly, we focus on that whether FFA is essential to confirm a stimulus is a face. Although FFA shows its activation both for usual objects and faces, stronger activation for faces than for usual objects has been confirmed by many studies. It suggests that compare to usual object detection, FFA is more sensitive to face detection. Therefore, we conclude that FFA is essential to confirm a stimulus is a face. Secondly, we discuss whether FFA plays a crucial role in distinguishing a face from other faces based on their physical attributes. Although some studies emphasize that FFA’s activation has a holistic domination, and others insist that FFA is sensitive to local features, what our concern is if FFA’s activation is dependent on difference of faces. Actually, if a face is perceived as a different face, FFA’s activation also changes. Based on the fact, we summarize that FFA plays crucial role in distinguishing a face from other faces based on their physical attributes. Thirdly, we consider the role of FFA in biological attributes detection. Some studies indicate that FFA’s activation is dependent on sexuality, age, and race of a face. Thus, FFA also plays role in biological attributes detection. Finally, we focus on FFA’s role in social attribute detection. Currently, there have been contradictory results about the relationship between FFA’s activation and some social attributes like expressions of a face. Some studies indicate that different FFA’s activation reflects different social attributes while other studies show there is no correlation between FFA activation and social attributes of a facial stimulus. Since social attributes of a facial stimulus are very complex, it is not easy to get coherent results. Face cognition is a purposeful cognitive activity. Classifying the purposes, and then clarifying what roles the related brain areas play in achieving the purposes, is an effective approach to understand the mechanisms. Besides FFA, there are also other face processing brain areas such as OFA (Occipital Face Area) and STS (Superior Temporal Sulcus), and same approach can be adopted to clarify the roles of these areas. More knowledge about the functional roles of all related brain areas in four aspects of face processing we get, clearer the neural mechanisms of face processing will be. Related Articles | Metrics

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Adolescents' Mental and Behavioral Problems and Professional Help-seeking Attitudes: the Mediation Effect of Parental Knowledge 2014, 37(1): 94-100.  Abstract ( )   PDF (428KB) ( )   Abstract Adolescence is a critical life stage for mental health. Mental and behavioral problems are increasingly prevalent among adolescents. Unfortunately, large numbers of studies indicated that young people were reluctant to seek professional mental health care. This low rate of adolescents seeking professional mental health care has a negative effect on adolescents. Professional help-seeking attitude has a strong influence on mental health utilization. Parents play an important role in adolescences’ professional help-seeking. Thus, previous studies have offered a parent-mediated model advocating direct parental intervention. Parents, however, may also have an indirect effect on adolescences’ professional help-seeking, for example, helping them form positive help-seeking attitudes. Previous studies indicated that there were differences between paternal and maternal parenting styles, which had different effects on adolescents. Considering the different effects of both father and mother on adolescents, the current study investigated the relationship between adolescents’ mental and behavioral problems, paternal knowledge, maternal knowledge, and professional help-seeking attitudes. A total of 831 students in the 7th grade, 8th grade and 10th grades from four schools in Beijing were asked to report their mental and behavioral problems by completing a Youth Self Report （YSR） questionnaire problem scale, maternal knowledge by completing a Maternal Knowledge Scale （MKNO）, paternal knowledge by completing a Paternal Knowledge Scale （PKNO）, as well as completing the Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help （ATSPPH）. The results were as follows: Correlation analysis and SEM showed that adolescents’ mental and behavioral problems negatively predicted their professional help-seeking attitude. Paternal knowledge played a partial mediation effect in the relationship between adolescents’ mental and behavioral problems and professional help-seeking attitude, accounting for 26.03% of the mediation effect, while maternal knowledge did not play a mediation effect. In sum, all factors accounted for 21.40% of adolescents’ professional help-seeking attitude. In conclusion, the study shows the mediation effect of paternal knowledge between adolescents’ mental and behavioral problems and professional help-seeking attitudes while maternal knowledge doesn’t have the mediation effect. These results highlight the important role fathers play in adolescents’ professional help-seeking attitudes. When encouraging adolescents with mental and behavioral problems to seek professional mental help, parents, and especially fathers, should be more involved in their children’s lives. Related Articles | Metrics

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Visual Preference of Facial Expressions in Children and Adults: Evidence from Eye Movements Li GU 2014, 37(1): 101-105.  Abstract ( )   PDF (336KB) ( )   The human face is among the most important visual stimuli for people of all ages, the importance of which partly stems from the face as a conveyer of information on emotional states of other individuals. Previous studies have verified that faces with threat-related expressions (anger or fear) tend to be more attractive than neutral ones. These studies suggest that the visual preference of the facial expressions support the threat-detection theory. On the other hand, recent findings show that positive faces, but not threat-related faces are more efficiently detected in visual search tasks, which seems to support another theory, the social emotional selectivity theory. So, which one of the two theories above is more capable of explain the developmental characteristics of visual preference of facial expressions? The question calls for a study comparing adults and children. The two hypothesis of the study are: (1) Due to the increase in the dependence of social interaction, there is a significant difference in preferred expression types in terms of attention characteristics between children and adults, with the latter preferring positive expressions. (2) There is a significant difference in preferred facial parts of an expression between adults and children, which, if verified, should provide empirical evidence in favor of the social emotional selectivity theory. Facial parts of fixation and its lengths, often assumed to directly reflect the allocation of visual attention, also play important roles in the visual preference of facial expression. In this study, an eye-tracker was employed to look into the developmental characteristics of both children and adults’ viewing of facial expressions. 45 children and 39 undergraduate subjects enrolled were instructed to view pictures of 5 different facial expressions, which were fear，anger, sadness, surprise and happiness, and their eye movements were recorded with a Tobbi eye tracker during the process. The results analyzed with ANOVA show that there are differences in adults and children’s visual preference of emotional expressions. First, the preference to happy expressions by adults is not observed in children. Second, adults make more and longer fixations in viewing happy faces compared to children. Third, adults are more likely to look at the eyes but children are more likely to look at the mouth. The study suggests that human expression of happiness has become more visually preferred by adults as a result of evolution, because the social dependency of positive emotions is less ambiguous than other facial expressions, and the visual preference of different facial parts could be related to these developmental changes. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Role of Working Memory in Inductive Reasoning Aging 2014, 37(1): 106-110.  Abstract ( )   PDF (306KB) ( )   Objective: Reasoning is thought to be the core component of general fluid intelligence. A high correlation has been reported between reasoning ability and working memory. There are studies showed that reasoning aging can be mediated by working memory, some researchers explain that working memory can affect the target maintenance in cognitive tasks, thus affect the performance of reasoning ability. However, the previous relevant study usually focused on the role of working memory capacity, while the other components of working memory which are important to target maintenance, such as attention switching and inhibition were rarely involved. What’ more, most of the previous studies chose college students as subjects, while the reasoning aging was not studied enough as an important area. In this study, the components of working memory system which are closely related to target maintenance __ working memory capacity, attention switching and inhibition were chosen as the indicators to examine the role of working memory in inductive reasoning aging. Methods: Totally 43 community-dwelling older adults, ranging in age from 75 to 95 years , and 74 college students ranging in age from 18 to 29 years were recruited in this study. All the participants took a battery of tests including Graphical Reasoning Test, Operation Working Memory Span Test, Task-switching Test and Stroop Test on computer. In the Graphical Reasoning test, the subjects were asked to find the target figure among five alternative choices according to a change in the rules between two given figures. In the Operation Working Memory Span Test, The participants were instructed to perform the calculation in their mind and remember the answer to each question, holding the entire set of answers in their memory until they were instructed to recall them in the same serial order that the equations had been presented. In the Task-switching test, a 2*2 grid was placed in the central part of the screen and there was a three-digit number in one field of the grid. When the number appeared in the two cells above, the subjects were asked to determine whether this number was odd. When the number appeared in the two cells below, the subjects were asked to determine whether the number was more than 500. In the Stroop test, The subjects were shown Chinese characters written in color, (e.g., “red” in green) and they were asked to determine the print color of the characters. Results: Correlation analysis results showed that working memory capacity, attention switching ability are significantly correlated to the inductive reasoning ability. Meanwhile, the same result was not observed between inhibition and reasoning ability, thus the indicator of inhibition was not included in the further analysis. The mediating effect analysis showed that: 1) There is significant mediating effect of working memory capacity between age and inductive reasoning ability, the effect size was 18%; 2) the mediating effect of attention switching is not significant; 3) The inhibition ability can’t enter into the mediating model. Conclusion: There is a significant mediating effect of working memory capacity between age and inductive reasoning. Related Articles | Metrics

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Stressful Life Events on Drug Use Among Reform School Students’: Mediated Moderating Effect 2014, 37(1): 111-116.  Abstract ( )   PDF (364KB) ( )   At present, more and more adolescents use drug. More than 30% reform school students use drug. Drug use greatly endangers adolescents’ health. Therefore, we should pay more attention to drug use among reform school students. In order to design effective prevention and intervention programs, we should study the potential mechanisms of drug use of reform school students. Due to the signi?cant biological, psychological, and social changes during adolescence, individuals have to face many challenges from family, school, and peer settings. Many studies have suggested that stressful life events play an important role in the development of adolescents’ drug use (Andersen & Teicher, 2009; Kulis, Marsiglia, & Nieri, 2009; Ye, Wen, Yang, Chen，Zhang, in press). Although stressful life events have been found to account for large proportions of variance in reform school students’ drug use, they do not lead to the same extent of drug use for all reform school students. The impact of stressful life events may be contingent upon many factors. Unfortunately, earlier studies on the effects of stressful life events have typically investigated direct relationships between the independent variables (i.e., stressful life events) and dependent variables (i.e., drug use) without exploring the processes that may underlie these relationships. The present study ?lled this gap by incorporating family functioning into the examination of the effects of stressful life events on reform school students’ drug use. In other words, family functioning may moderate the relationship between stressful life events and drug use. Although the interactions between stressful life events and family functioning may plausibly explain the differences of reform school students’ involvement in drug use, the question remains how family functioning may in?uence the relations between stressful life events and drug use, or, in other words, what process is responsible for the moderation effect. In the present study, we proposed a mediated moderation model to examine potential underlying mechanisms of the stressful life events ×family functioning interactions predicting drug use. In a mediated moderation model, a moderating effect can be explained, at least in part, by a mediator variable. More precisely, it was hypothesized that perceived social support mediated the moderating effect of family functioning on the relationship between stressful life events and drug use. The present study aimed to investigate whether family functioning moderated the relationship between stressful life events and drug use, and perceived social support mediated this moderation effect after controlling for several demographic variables. A sample of 514 reform school students of 10 reform schools (427 boys and 87 girls, Mage=14.25±0.92) was recruited in the study to complete self-report questionnaires. The self-report questionnaires used in this study included stressful life events scale, family function scale, perceived social support questionnaire, and drug use questionnaire． Results were as follows: (1) family functioning moderated the relationship between stressful life events and drug use. (2) perceived social support mediated the moderation effect. Perceived social support could partially mediate the relationship between stressful life events × family functioning and drug use. The effect of stressful life events on drug use among reform school students is mediated moderating effect. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Learning Objects Force Analysis by Correct and Incorrect Combined Worked-examples ZHANG Qi 2014, 37(1): 117-123.  Abstract ( )   PDF (456KB) ( )   The purpose of this study is to discover whether the effect of learning objects force analysis by correct and incorrect combined worked-examples is better than by only correct combined worked-example. On this basis, the study further investigates whether the methods of error flag and correct and incorrect worked-examples paired combination can promote the effect of learning objects force analysis. This study designed three experiments to test the hypothesis. All experiments used objects force analysis diagram in first year high school physics textbook as the materials and middle school students of grade three participated in the study. A total of 160 subjects were selected through the pre-test. The experiments used single-factor design, independent variable level: correct and incorrect combined examples vs. correct examples; error flag vs. no error flag in correct and incorrect combined examples; correct and incorrect examples paired combination vs. correct examples. Experimental procedures included pre-test, grouping worked-example learning and post-test. The results of this study showed: (1) Learning effect of correct and incorrect combined examples group is significantly better than only correct combined examples group（F（1，59）=4.89，p< .05）; (2) Learning effect of correct and incorrect combined examples group with error flag is significantly better than correct and incorrect combined examples group without error flag（F（1，99）=7.23，p< .01）; (3) Learning effect of correct and incorrect examples paired combination with error flag is significantly better than only correct combined examples（F（1，59）=5.45，p< .05）. Conclusions of this study: (1)When middle school students use objects force analysis diagram to learn objects force analysis rules, the effect of correct and incorrect combined worked-examples is significantly better than only correct combined examples; (2)When middle school students use objects force analysis diagram to learn objects force analysis rules, the effect of correct and incorrect combined examples with error flag is significantly better than correct and incorrect combined examples without error flag. Error flag can significantly promote learning effect of objects force analysis rules; (3) Correct and incorrect examples paired combination with error flag can significantly promote learning effect of objects force analysis rules. In order to correct the error of objects force analysis in middle school, students can use correct and incorrect examples paired combination with error flag. This study further verifies the learning effect of correct and incorrect combined examples in objects force analysis. This study creates the error flag and correct and incorrect examples paired combination with error flag to promote learning effect of correct and incorrect combined worked-examples. Related Articles | Metrics

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The influence of phonological short-term memory and lexical knowledge on second language vocabulary learning in Chinese-English bilinguals Teng-Fei Ma zhu wang 2014, 37(1): 124-131.  Abstract ( )   PDF (559KB) ( )   The present study investigated the relative importance of phonological short-term memory (PSTM) and lexical knowledge for second language (English) vocabulary learning in Chinese-English bilinguals. To clarify the conjoined influence of two factors, we distinguished PSTM into serial order STM (measured by serial order reconstruction task) and item STM (tested by delayed single nonword repetition), and nonwords were manipulated in phoneme familiarity (English nonwords and mixed nonwords). Participants are all Chinese native speakers who learn English as a second language with medium proficiency. The paradigm of picture-nonword pairs was adopted in this research. Using a learning way of auditory presentation and speech output, Experiment 1 demonstrated that nonword repetition and lexical knowledge are two independent predictors of familiar nonword learning; as for unfamiliar nonwords, lexical knowledge and serial order STM measurement independently predicted its performance. Since the results of Experiment 1 can be caused by learning difficulties and inaccuracy of pronunciation, picture recognition in the paired-associate learning were used in Experiment 2 to explore this question further. The results of Experiment 2 show that serial order STM, item STM and lexical knowledge are all independent predictors of familiar nonword learning, and serial order STM and item STM can also predict the performance of unfamiliar nonword learning independently. These results illustrate the important role of PSTM and lexical knowledge in second language vocabulary learning among Chinese-English adults, and the influence would varied since the characteristics of input information and ways of learning are different. Related Articles | Metrics

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EFFECTS OF INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC CUES ON DIFFERENT KINDS OF JUDGMENT OF LEARNING 2014, 37(1): 132-139.  Abstract ( )   PDF (514KB) ( )   As one of prospective monitories, JOL is an important aspect of meta-memory monitoring and control which reflects predictions of one’s memory. By research of JOL, we can investigate individuals learning and memory about the understanding of the effect degree, as to have a better control on their own learning and memory process. The study of JOL is very valuable and useful as it can provide theoretical base to individuals of more effective learning and memory. Based on the Koriat’s cues model theory, our investigation focus on the differences between the two learning conditions which the immediate judgment of learning and the delayed judgment of learning, and on the effect of intrinsic cues and extrinsic cues on them. We also have a further explore on their different thread on the effect of JOL. The subjects are 39 undergraduate students of Shaanxi Normal University, China. Experiment using a 2 × 2 × 2 3-factor mixed design. Intrinsic cues mean word types, extrinsic cues means presentation time and order. The experiment consists of two parts immediate judgment of learning and delayed judgment of learning where each subject must participate. The results showed that: (1) the relative accuracy of delayed JOL is significantly higher than the immediate JOL. (2) Different types of cues have different effects on JOL, JOL more sensitive to the intrinsic cues. (3) The same type cue has different influence on various JOL conditions. (4) In the immediate condition, the distribution of JOL emerges a gradually rising trend; furthermore, it shows a distribution of the "U" curve in the delayed condition. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effects of Supervisor-Group Fit in Work Engagement on Group Performance: The Influence of Group Satisfaction Climate Shan-Shan ZHANG 2014, 37(1): 140-145.  Abstract ( )   PDF (347KB) ( )   The work engagement of employees has received increasing attention in the industry and organization psychology literature with the development of “positive psychology”. However, very few empirical studies have addressed the issue in the group level, and no studies examined the effect of supervisor’s engagement on group efficacy. Meanwhile, work engagement is contagious within work groups and may be communicated from supervisor to subordinate, and vice versa. Therefore, this study examines the effect of congruence between supervisor’s work engagement and group engagement climate on group performance. Based on supervisor-group fit theory, we expected that when group supervisors’ work engagement and group engagement climate are in congruence will be have a reinforcement effect on group performance. We also hypothesized that group satisfaction climate had the mediating role on the relationship between supervisor-group engagement fit and group performance. Data were collected from 133 group supervisors and 645 group members using questionnaire survey. The average group size was 4.85(SD = 2.73) with a minimum of three and a maximum of 14 members per group. The group members were asked to complete a questionnaire package assessing group performance, work engagement and job satisfaction. We aggregated the individual-level indices into the group-level variables based on referent-shift consensus model. Their immediate supervisors were asked to rate their work engagement. Theoretical hypotheses were tested by quadratic polynomial regression with response surface technology to analyze the matched sample, and estimated confidence intervals for the linear and nonlinear mediate effects of group satisfaction climate by bootstrapping 20000 samples. The results showed that the levels of group performance will be higher when group supervisors and group members’ engagement are in congruence rather than in dis-congruence. The group performance was maximized in the condition that work engagement between group supervisors and group members are in congruence and high. Meanwhile, group satisfaction climate partly mediated the linear relation between supervisor-group engagement congruent fit and group performance, but didn’t mediate the nonlinear relation between supervisor-group engagement dis-congruent fit and group performance. The present study provided robust evidence for the optimum engagement matching model for group effectiveness by investigating the fit and misfit between group supervisors and group members. Furthermore, this study highlighted the mediating effect of group satisfaction climate, and it expanded the existing literature about the specific mechanism through which group-level process of satisfaction influences group performance. Moreover, it contributes to the literature of work engagement and provided new perspectives for the group-level engagement studies. Related Articles | Metrics

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Exploring the Content of Organization-based Self-Esteem among Chinese Workers: Applying the Concept Mapping Method Yun-Hui XIE Li MA 2014, 37(1): 146-149.  Abstract ( )   PDF (245KB) ( )   Pierce, Gardner, Cummings, and Dunham (1989) proposed the concept of organization-based self-esteem (OBSE) and defined OBSE to be “the degree to which organizational members believe that they can satisfy their needs by participating in roles within the context of an organization”. The concept of OBSE has caught the interest of a number of researchers (e.g., Chattopadhyay, 2003; Gardner & Pierce, 2004; Lee, 2003). However, these studies only address this concept from a single dimention. Existing literature has been criticized having shortcomings of either lack of relevance, or lack of construct validity. Studies in China have followed the Western tradition and suffer the same problems, in addition to a lack of consideration to the specific Chinese context. This paper synthesizes the qualitative and quantitive approaches, explores the distinct elements of individual organization-based self-esteem under Chinese context, and paves an avenue for future empirical research. This paper reports an empirical study based on 26 semi-structured interviews of workers with diverse backgrounds. In interviewing these individuals, we first asked for a brief description of their work organization and their tasks at work. We then asked them four questions focused to obtain self-esteem related work experiences that will be used as units of analysis in data analyses. Following the method of concept mapping, we extracted 96 units from the interview transcripts, describing the elements of organization-based self-esteem . These units were then categorized by 15 coders and their “psychological distances” were represented in a matrix. Multidimensional scaling based on the matrix generated a “concept map” that was then culstered into four categories, representing four distinct types of organization-based self-esteem elements. We found that the five-cluster solution best represents the results. Theoretically, organization-based self-esteem is derived from workers’ (1) work performance, (2) work roles, (3) the working unit itself. We then eleborated the meanings of these elements, and provided specific explanations in Chinese context. Performance-based self-esteem is how well workers evaluate themselves based on their performance and achievement at work. Role-based self-esteem is how well workers evaluate themselves based on role characteristics associated with their work. Unit-based self-esteem as how well workers evaluate themselves based on their membership in their organizations. Leader-based self-esteem is how well workers were treated by their leaders. Last, peer and subordinate-based self-esteem represents how they evaluate themselves based on their interactions with their peers and subordinates at work. Theoretical and empirical contributions were discussed in the end. Related Articles | Metrics

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Ego Depletion Promotes Risk-Taking Behavior Kai DOU Yan-Gang Nie Jian-Bin Li 2014, 37(1): 150-155.  Abstract ( )   PDF (396KB) ( )   According to the strength model of self-control, self-control refers to limited capacity that people employ to override undesirable thoughts, emotions and behaviors. This model proposes that initial exertion of self-control consumes limited resources, which reduce performance of subsequent tasks involving self-control. This effect is called self-control resources depletion (aka. ego depletion). It further argues that ego depletion can be circumvented by a variety of approaches. The process of making decision is both influenced by analytic system and experiential system. It has been unraveled that analytic system is damaged by ego depletion, leading people to depend more on the experiential system to make a decision. Under this circumstance, people may fail in evaluating the risks and benefits, which promotes the occurrence of risk behaviors. Therefore, the current study assumes that ego depletion may promote risk behaviors. In addition, the present study also hypothesizes that having participants to drink lemonade mixed with glucose can alleviate the negative effect of ego depletion on risk-taking behavior than in the condition who have lemonade without glucose. Two experiments were designed to test these ideas. In experiment 1, a congruent or incongruent Stroop task was used to manipulate participants’ self-control resources. The rationale of this task is people should control the predominant tendency to name the word when they are required to speak aloud the color, which consumes a lot of self-control resources. After completing the Stroop task, participants were required to answer three manipulation checks and the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) before working on the balloon analogue risk task (BART) which was to test their risk-taking behavior. In experiment 2, ego depletion was manipulated by a “writing with non-dominant hand” task. The rationale of this task is that right-handed people in this right-handed world have established a firm habitual of using their right hands. Thus it would be hard for them to use their non-dominant hand to do something (e.g., writing). Tremendous self-control resources have to be employed because they must exert self-control to complete such task. After finishing writing the paper, respondents were also asked to fill in three manipulation checks and the PANAS. Finally, they completed the BART after having a glass of beverage with or without approximately 400 calories. In both experiments, Trait Self-control Scale and Risk Preference Index were first administered to participants before they undertook the ego depletion tasks. After ruling out some possible intervening variables (e.g., trait self-control level, risk preference and mood), participants in the condition of high self-control resources depletion risked more to get greater reward than those in the condition of low self-control resources depletion (experiment 1 and 2). More important, when in the state of high self-control resources depletion, people who had beverage containing glucose risked less than those drinking the beverage without glucose (experiment 2), suggesting that supplementing physiological energy could effectively mitigate the negative effect of self-control resources depletion on risk-taking behavior. In sum, the present study demonstrated that ego depletion indeed promotes risk-taking behavior, and this effect can be moderated by physiological energy supplement. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Empirical Study on Impression Preference for Strangers 2014, 37(1): 156-160.  Abstract ( )   PDF (298KB) ( )   Impression preference, the likes or dislikes when facing a stranger, is the assessment component of First Impression. The objective of this research is to explore the mental mechanism of the process in the view of relational self. If a stranger is similar with one’s Significant Other (SO), which will activate the corresponding relational self and, at the same time, the preference for SO will be transferred to the stranger. It’s transference, fundamentally an implicit and automatic process, and it’s worth to note whether it can be controlled or not. In this paper, the researchers planned to test and verify the above-mentioned process, especially its controllability. Based on the theory of relational self, 2×2×2 mixed experimental design was adopted with three independent variables: relativity (between-subject factor)，that is whom the stranger is relative to — SO or acquaintance; similarity (within-subject factor), that is whether the stranger is similar to SO/acquaintance or not; and hint (between-subject factor), that is whether to remind the similarity or not. One point should be noted that researchers designate mother as SO and classmate as acquaintance, the former suggests intimate relationship,while the latter just a nodding acquaintance. The dependent variable was impression preference for strangers. The two-session paradigm of transference study was used in the procedure. Firstly, in order to get participants’ initial data, information questionnaires about a specific SO/acquaintance were made based on literature and interview. Given that different role experiences could be a noise variable, then, 80 female participants were selected by clustering sampling from sophomore students. They filled in the questionnaires and wrote down their ID. After that, for each participant, a specific questionnaire of impression preference for strangers was made based on the information collected. Secondly, two weeks later, the participants took part in the posttest but they really didn’t realize its relevance to the pretest. This time they needed to determine their preference for two strangers respectively (the one was similar with the former SO/acquaintance, the other was not). Three questions were provided for each stranger, and scales ranging from 1 to 7, with higher values indicating more preference. The manipulation of “hint” variable was depended on the instruction. That is, before making decision, the participants were told to recall whether the stranger was similar to one of his SOs or acquaintances. It was expected that “hint” could interrupt the automatic mental process, so that participants could make more rational judgment. 　　　The conclusions drawn from the experiment: 　　　1. When the stranger was similar to one’s SO, compared to the dissimilar one, he would get more preference, F(1,76) = 22.463, p< .001,η2 = .228. On the contrary, whether the stranger was similar to one’s acquaintance or not, there was no significant difference in impression preference. 　　　2. Hint reduced the level of impression preference when the stranger was similar to SO. F(1,76) = 4.741, p< .05,η2 = .059. The research suggests that, SO could influence the impression preference for strangers, and the process could be controlled. There were two main contributions in this research. One was to reinforce the idea that SO could influence one’s transference to the similar strangers by adding the acquaintance factor; the other one was to suggest that the automatic process of impression preference could be controlled. In particular, the mediated effect of relational self was commented in the discussion section. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effects of Task Frame and the Magnitude of Outcome on Risk Preference of Narcissists 2014, 37(1): 161-165.  Abstract ( )   PDF (275KB) ( )   Individuals with more narcissistic personalities have relatively consistently shown biased decision-making in the direction of increased risk seeking. Risk preference has also been examined in research paradigm of task frame and magnitude of outcome. But investigation on the narcissists’ risk preference with impact of task frame and magnitude of outcome in decision-making settings is rare at present. Here we explore the function of narcissism on laboratory-based risky tasks concerning loss and gain frames and different magnitude of outcome. Participants were 234 undergraduates (124 females, 110 males, age range from 17 to 23 years, M = 19.26, SD= 1.15) randomly taken from psychology classes in Shaanxi normal university. They were asked to make choice on risk preference tasks involving 28 items under gain or loss frames with small or large magnitude of outcome and fill out Narcissistic Personality Questionnaires and Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. The sequence was manipulated across groups according to the experimental design. At the conclusion of the study, the participants received course requirement credits for their participation. Hypothesis was tested using χ2, t and F statistics. The results indicated that (1) framing effects emerged in situations with medium level of risk and below on a relatively regular basis, especially on tasks with great magnitude of outcome; (2) Frame effects were moderated by the magnitude of outcome. Participants in the gain situations demonstrated more willingness to take risks when making decisions for small sums. Conversely, participants facing the loss showed stronger desire to take risks when making decisions for large sums; (3) Reversed framing effects were found for overt/covert narcissism on risk preference in decision making. Overt narcissists tended to be more risky when offered loss message whereas covert narcissists showed more positive attitudes toward risk concerning gain task frame. In addition, risk attitude of covert narcissists were affected by the magnitude of outcomes as well. They probably made more conservative decisions under relatively minimal loss but chose the risky alternatives under small gain conditions. Overall, the current study highlights the magnitude of outcome and risk level for understanding risk preference in different task frames, which tends to broaden the theoretical perspectives on decision making. Framing effects were confined to moderate risky situations and below and would reverse when offered different sizes of losses or gains. Nonetheless, personality factors matter as well, which suggests that both intrinsic and extrinsic factors play a part in shaping individual risky decision. Overt and covert narcissists were distinctive in risk seeking or aversion when provided different decision tasks. These findings are seemingly incompatible with a pure extrinsic explanation for frame effects. Collectively, future research on mechanism is needed to further this area of inquiry. Related Articles | Metrics

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Effects of Daily Social Sharing of Emotion on Daily Affect 2014, 37(1): 166-171.  Abstract ( )   PDF (382KB) ( )   Research on social sharing of emotion suggested that talking about positive events were related to high-lightened positive affect, above and beyond the impact of the positive event itself (a phenomenon called “capitalization”). However, no significant affect changing was observed after sharing negative events. This study examined the relationship between social sharing of positive and negative events and daily affect, and considered the sharing level of daily events in two aspects: the sharing of information and the sharing of feelings. The authors’ purposes were to examine whether “capitalization” effect existed across nations, and whether communicating negative feelings with others was associated with increased daily positive or negative affect. 47 under-graduate and graduate students completed 314 daily diaries at the end of the day for a week. In the diaries, participants briefly described the most positive and stressful experience they had today and then rated the positivity and negativity of the experience on a 5-point scale. Sharing level of daily events was measured by a two-item composite（one is about information and the other is about feelings, both measured on a 5-point scale）. The first item was “How much information（episode of the events not concerned with feelings） about this event did you talk about?”，and the second item was “To what degree have you talked about your feelings about this event with someone today?” Daily positive and negative emotion were assessed with the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule(PANAS). All day-level data was analyzed using hierarchical linear modeling. The results were: (1) both positive sharing and negative sharing could positively predict daily positive affect （p<0.01），but could not predict daily negative affect.; (2) It was the sharing of feelings（both the positive and the negative）, not the sharing of information that could positively predict daily positive affect （p<0.01）; (3) The participants’ sex, depression level and distress disclosure index mediated the increasing of positive affect elicited by sharing of negative feelings（p<0.05）. From the results we concluded that either sharing of positive feeling or negative feeling could improve daily positive affect, could not predict daily negative affect . These findings first confirmed the “capitalization” effect of social sharing among Chinese participants in a daily context. Secondly, there was individual difference in the increasing of positive affect elicited by sharing of negative feelings. In general the social sharing of emotion has been linked to positive affect improving. This may be because social sharing of emotion allows one to receive validation and reassurance from others while building interpersonal relationships. Depression level reducing the improving effect of the social sharing of negative feelings on positive affect may be due to the deficiency in social skill for depression. In order to improve positive affect and weaken the negative affect in the social sharing of emotion it is necessary for the individuals’ to improve social skills and get a supportive environment and positive feedback during the sharing. Further study should investigate daily event sharing from a dyadic perspective（to examine the different outcomes resulted from different responses after sharing a negative events）and deepen the research on the possible mediators of personal traits between sharing of negative feelings and increased daily positive affect. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Human Resource Management Practice on Follower Innovation Behavior: The Mediating Role of Psychological Contract Breach and the Moderating Effect of Supervisor-Subordinator Communication 2014, 37(1): 172-176.  Abstract ( )   PDF (298KB) ( )   Researchers and practitioners are most concerned about employees’ innovation behavior in organizations. Previous studies have explored this issue from many perspectives. To fill these research gaps, this study based on the definition of innovation behavior by Scott & Bruce, examined the joint effects of organizational factor ( Human Resource Management ), individual factor (perceived of psychological contract breach ), leadership factor (superior-subordinate communication) on employee’ innovation behavior. This study examined the joint effects of human resource practice, psychological contract breach and supervisor-subordinator communication on employees’ innovation behavior. A moderated mediation model was proposed and tested by using a sample of 402 employees.500 survey questionnaires were distributed among employees from manufacturing, trading and technical firms in Zhejiang and Jiangsu Province. 471 questionnaires were returned, for response rates of 94.2%. After we had deleted unqualified ones, a total of 402 questionnaires were remained and constituted the sample for this study. In terms of statistical strategies, we employed regression analysis and moderated mediation analysis to examine hypotheses. Results showed that 1) Human resource management practice was positively related to employees’ innovation behavior(β=.119,p<.01); 2) Psychological contract breach partially mediated the relationship between human resource management practice and employees’ innovation behavior(β=-.084,p<.05); 3) Supervisor-subordinator communication moderated the mediated relationship between human resource management practice and employees’ innovation behavior through psychological contract breach(β=.094,p<.05). That is, psychological contract breach mediated the relationship between human resource management practice and innovation behavior only along with low supervisor-subordinator communication. This study makes an important contribution to the literature on innovation behavior. By integrating the organization factor, individual factor and leader factor, we extended existing knowledge of why employees do not exhibit innovation behavior. Our findings also offer several practical implications. First, our results highlighted the positive effect of human resource management of the organization on employees’ innovation behavior. As such, managers should focus their energy on building and maintaining the level of organizations’ human resource management practice, thus encourage employee to exhibit high innovation behavior. Second, our results highlighted the negative effect of psychological contract breach on employees’ innovation behavior. As such, managers should focus their energy on building and maintaining employees’ psychological contract, thus reducing their perceptions of psychological contract breach. Finally, our results emphasis on maintaining high level of supervisor-subordinator communication in organization. With high supervisor-subordinator communication may be necessary to increase the likelihood of employing staff with high level of innovation behavior. Related Articles | Metrics

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A Study of Self-Enhancement with the Effect of “Everyone is Better than Average” Mechanism Taken into Consideration 2014, 37(1): 177-181.  Abstract ( )   PDF (296KB) ( )   Do Chinese self-enhance? This problem has been widely discussed, but no definitive answers. One part study results show that Chinese people are not self-enhancement, and the other part study results show that Chinese people are self-enhancement, two views at loggerheads over; In addition, many of the latter studies are questioned by researchers because of the methods they use, that means what measured by studies use the methods of Better than Average Effect and Self-Serving Attribution Bias is not self-enhancement, but a cognitive bias - "everyone is better than average" (EBTA) mechanism. Results of these studies can serve as evidences that Chinese people are self-improvement only if the effect of EBTA mechanism is excluded. In order to explore Chinese people's self-enhancement motive and its manifestations, this study used the methods of Better than Average Effect, Self-Serving Attribution Bias and Implicit Association Test to measure the self-enhancement of Chinese university students, with the effect of EBTA mechanism taken into consideration. Study 1 used the method of Better than Average Effect. Chinese university students were asked to evaluate themselves or a strange university student in homogeneous groups. Subjects’ self-evaluations were indicators of self-enhancement. Subjects’ evaluations of the strange student were indicators of EBTA mechanism. We got the features of Chinese university students’ explicit self-enhancement after the effect of EBTA mechanism was excluded. The results showed that: if we didn’t consider EBTA mechanism, Chinese university students had Better than Average Effect, they saw themselves as better than 65.4% of people in the homogeneous group; The effect of EBTA mechanism was significant; Chinese university students still had Better than Average Effect after the effect of EBTA mechanism was excluded, they thought themselves were better than 56% of people in the homogeneous group. Study 2 used the method of Self-Serving Attribution Bias. Chinese university students were asked to attribute their/a strange university student’s success and failure on 8 factors. Subjects’ attributions of their success and failure were indicators of self-enhancement. Subjects’ attributions of the strange student’s success and failure were indicators of EBTA mechanism. We got the features of Chinese university students’ explicit self-enhancement after the effect of EBTA mechanism was excluded. The results showed that: if we didn’t consider EBTA mechanism, Chinese university students had Self-Serving Attribution Bias; The effect of EBTA mechanism was significant; Chinese university students still had Self-Serving Attribution Bias after the effect of EBTA mechanism was excluded. Study 3 combined Implicit Association Test and the first two methods. Subjects completed Implicit Association Test, Better than Average Effect test and Self-Serving Attribution Bias test. The results showed that: Chinese university students had implicit self-enhancement; There was positive correlation between implicit self-enhancement and explicit self-enhancement. There weren’t gender or educational differences in both implicit self-enhancement and explicit self-enhancement. Related Articles | Metrics

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Regulatory Fit Effect and Its Mechanism in Decision Making Yong-Fang LIU 2014, 37(1): 182-189.  Abstract ( )   PDF (585KB) ( )   As an important motivation theory, a lot of researchers pay attention to Regulatory Fit Theory (RFT). Past studies have shown that regulatory fit had an impact on attitudes and behaviors, such as motivation (Hong & Lee, 2008), emotion (Idson,et al., 2004), persuasion (Zhao & Pechmann, 2007), negotiation (Gross & Appelt, 2008) and leadership (Stam, et al., 2010) etc. Recently, some scholars began to apply RFT to one of new areas---decision making, also had many useful findings. However, integration studies related to RFT and decision making were scarce. Therefore, this paper tried to explore the regulatory fit effect and its mechanism in multi-attribute decision making. Payne et al. (1993) thought that multi-attribute decision making was a process related to information processing and search, decision makers often use two information search patterns: based on attribute and based on alternative. Then whether promotion focus and prevention focus participants have different preferences on information search pattern? Whether regulatory fit occurs between regulatory focus and search pattern? Finally lead to regulatory fit effect? In addition, studies involve non-decision making indicated that processing fluency was the mechanism of regulatory fit effect, if it involves multi-attribute decision making, can we gain same conclusion? In order to answer above questions, eighty six undergraduate students participated in the experiment, among which six students didn’t complete the experiment, and their data were deleted. This experiment employed 2(regulatory focus: promotion focus/prevention focus) × 2(information search pattern: based on attribute/based on alternative) between-subject design, Participants were randomly assigned to four experimental conditions. Every condition included 20 participants. The dependent variables were evaluation of the chose option, processing fluency in decision making. In this study, Participants were first asked to complete regulatory focus priming task as well as correspondingly checking measures. After that, participants were requested to complete multi-attribute decision making task and correspondingly checking measures. Finally, they completed questionnaires about post-decision evaluation and processing fluency. All experiment data was analyzed by SPSS15.0. The results of the experiments indicated that: (1) based on attribute search pattern was found to be used more frequently under promotion focus, whereas based on alternative search pattern was used more frequently under prevention focus; (2) regulatory fit between promotion/prevention focus and based on attribute/ alternative search pattern was found in decision making, moreover this fit made participants give more favorable post-decision evaluation to their chosen option, in other words, regulation fit effect occurred in decision making; (3) processing fluency could be used to partly explain this regulation fit effect. These findings added to the current knowledge on regulatory focus theory by exploring different preferences between promotion focus and prevention focus on information search pattern in decision making. In addition, our results enriched theoretical and empirical studies involved regulation fit theory, meanwhile contributed to understanding of mechanisms underlying the regulatory fit effect. Future research was needed to explore the relationship between processing fluency and feeling right, finally revealed the true mechanism of regulation fit effect. Related Articles | Metrics

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Job Crafting: the New Path For Meaningful Work and Personal Growth cheng GUO 2014, 37(1): 190-196.  Abstract ( )   PDF (477KB) ( )   For a long time, employees have been viewed as passive performers of their assigned job tasks. Recently, several scholars have argued that job design theory needs to address the influence of employees on their job designs. In this view, employees are seen as also being responsible for their work outcomes. This is an important switch in job redesign theory. So the concept of job crafting which the new research perspective in Organization Behavior appeared. Based on combing the theoretical and empirical study literature of related job crafting systematically, this article summarized and analyzed the interpretation of the concept of job crafting, the way and method of job crafting, the prediction factors of job crafting and its effections to the individual and organization so that its abundant theoretical connotation and practical value can be realized and understood. Specific content as follows: First，on the concept of job crafting, based on the scholars point of view, this article think that job crafting enables individuals to shape their own work identities and work roles through personal construction of their jobs, and its core purpose is that the employees redesign their work to get a higher job satisfaction, job involvement and resiliency, etc., and then work happily. Second，on the way and method of job crafting，Tims & Bakker（2010）framed job crafting in terms of the JD–R model in order to guide job crafting research. They think that the employees may craft these aspects of the job in three ways according to this model: (1) The employee may increase the level of job resources available at work. (2)The employee may increase the level of job demands at work. (3)The employee may decrease the level of job demands at work. In addition, Berg, Dutton, & Wrzesniewski ( 2013) think that the employees may craft their job through changing tasks (adding tasks, emphasizing tasks, redesigning tasks), changing relationships (building relationships, refeaming relationships, adapting relationships) and changing perceptions ( expanding perceptions, focusing perceptions, linking perceptions). Third, on the antecedents of job crafting, this article report the characteristics of the work situation such as person–job misfit、high levels of autonomy and task independence could facilitate employees’ job crafting behaviors, and also report the characteristics of employees such as high levels of proactive personality, self-efficacy and focus on promotion lead employees to engage more readily in job crafting. Forth, on the effections to the individual and organization, many studies confirmed that job crafting leads to positive outcomes for the employee (e.g. person–job fit, enhanced meaning, job /life satisfaction, work engagement) as well as for the organization (e.g. commitment, high performance, reduced personnel turnover) . Finally, the article gives some suggestions for further research, that is the studies on job crafting should keep focusing on the enrichment and perfection of its theoretical construction, pay attention to individual and group differences of job crafting, strengthen the studies on the role of organization in job crafting as well as deepen the relationships between job crafting and organization. Related Articles | Metrics

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Reducing the effects of Stereotype Threat: Intervention Strategies and Future Directions 2014, 37(1): 197-204.  Abstract ( )   PDF (627KB) ( )   Stereotype threat refers to individual’s being at risk of confirming the negative stereotype of self and their own groups. Stereotype threat usually comes from individual’s negative stereotypic perception of self and his or her belonging groups. According to the Identity Threat Model of Stigma suggested by Major and O'Brien, an individual in negative stereotype situation would experience potential identity threat, which would influence mental activities and behavioral performance via alternative approach of conscious or unconscious. Identity threat would happen when an individual appraises the stereotype threat as potentially harmful to his or her social identity or as surpassing his or her coping resources. Possible personal traits that would influence individual’s evaluation towards his or her own performance include situational cues, the group representation of his or her belonging group, motivation and goals. On the basis of Major and O'Brien’s Identity Threat Model, the present study organized the strategies from the perspective of improving situation, changing cognitive schema and training positive internal attribution, and systemically reviewed the possible strategies that could be useful for dealing with stereotype, including attributional techniques, role models of high achievers of the stereotyped group, deemphasizing stereotypic identity, providing multiple social identities, encouraging self-affirmation, and reframing the task context, and so on. Although the above three coping and intervening strategies are all individual-oriented and they all are effective in reducing or eliminating stereotype threat effect, their working mechanisms work out different. The schema-based coping strategy is centered on controlling the negative stereotype situation, and the self-based coping strategy mainly focuses on training individuals’ implicit attitude and motivation so as to intervene with stereotype threat, while the situation-based intervention can be regarded as a kind of educational implication because the long-lasting change of implicit perception relies on education. In the end of the paper, limitations of previous studies and futures directions in the area of dealing with stereotype threat were pointed out. First, future research can be carried out by combining with more group identities. Second, long-lasting and developmental coping strategies should be discussed in the further studies. Third to improve the intervening efficiency, the intervention strategies should be promoted to groups instead of to individuals. What’s more, the positive stereotype and its advantages are in need to be explored in later studies. And social system should improve its service to appeal to the elimination of negative stereotype and attentions should be paid to the perfecting of social systems as well. Finally, to put forward a more credible and reliable classification criteria for intervention strategies, some statistical methods (such as meta-analysis) should be employed to reveal the specific mechanism for each category of intervention strategies. Related Articles | Metrics

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Item Selection Methods for Balancing Test Efficiency with Item Bank Usage Efficiency in CD-CAT 2014, 37(1): 212-216.  Abstract ( )   PDF (282KB) ( )   Cognitive diagnostic computerized adaptive testing (CD-CAT) is a popular mode of online testing of cognitive diagnostic assessment (CDA). The key to a CD-CAT program is the item selection methods. Three of the most popular methods are developed based on Kullback–Leibler information (KL), Shannon entropy (SHE) and expected discrimination method (ED) to utilize selecting items in CD-CAT. These methods can achieve much better test efficiency, however, they often lead to unbalanced item usage within a pool. Diagnostic test would not be a high–stake test, so the item overexposure problem may not be a major concern. Whereas the item underexposure problem lead to wasting time and money invested in developing each item on it and the high test overlap rate problem lead to the effects of intense exercise . Although，restrictive progressive method (RP-PWKL) and restrictive threshold method (RT-PWKL）are proposed to balance item exposure control with measurement accuracy, RP-PWKL and RT-PWKL suppress overexposure is to add a restriction so that the maximum exposure rate will be kept under a predetermined value. The rationale for the maximum exposure rate should be further consideration. For above consideration, the article proposes two item selection methods for CD-CAT based on the Deterministic Input, Noisy ‘And’ Gate” (DINA) model. First, using KL information as a discrimination function of ED, KLED is proposed to handle other cognitive diagnostic models, besides the DINA model. Second, according to the idea of randomization strategies, in which the selection of the item is always made at random among the most informative items, randomization halving algorithm (RHA) is proposed. For RHA，all items within the specified range are available for selection rather than an arbitrary or only one number. Moreover, we show the connection between KLED based on KL, HA, and RHA; KLED can be regard as a weighted HA method, weighted by the corresponding item parameters; HA can be regard as RHA without adding a random component between different item attribute vectors in the Q matrix of item pool. Then, two simulation studies are carried out, one using a simulated item bank, and the other based on items calibrated from real data. Eight item selection strategies are taken into consideration in these studies, including random, posterior–weighted KL (PWKL) , RP-PWKL, RT-PWKL, ED, halving algorithm (HA), KLED and RHA. In addition, VRP-PWKL and VRT-PWKL are proposed for variable-length CD-CAT as an extended version of RP-PWKL and RT-PWKL.Simulation studies for fixed or variable-length CD-CAT are conducted based on the eight methods, and the results are compared in terms of pattern or attribute classification correct rate, error classification rate, item exposure rate, test overlap rate. The simulation results show that: RHA, HA, RP-PWKL, VRP-PWKL and VRT-PWKL have more balanced usage of the item bank and slight decrease in correct classification rate of knowledge state; RHA, HA, VRP-PWKL and VRT-PWKL can be used for variable-length CD-CAT. Though the results from the simulation study are encouraging, further studies of CD-CAT are proposed for the future investigations such as different cognitive diagnostic models. Related Articles | Metrics

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Pitch Processing of Music and Speech in Autism 2014, 37(1): 217-224.  Abstract ( )   PDF (510KB) ( )   Autism is a neuron-developmental disorder referring to social interaction, speech communication, and stereotyped behavior. The prevalence rate of autism in China is 2.38/10,000. Many Chinese autistics miss the best intervention period due to the limited research and treatment. Parents of autistic children are therefore under great mental and social pressure. It has been shown that autistics have superior pitch perception of music. More specifically, autistics performed better in labeling pitch, discriminating pitch difference, and judging pitch direction, as compared to the controls. However, individuals with Asperger syndrome showed better performance to identify the tones embedded in chords and discords, although they did not demonstrate better for pitch discrimination as compared with the typically developing persons. With regard to pitch contour processing, there are two different theories: weak central coherence and enhanced perceptual functioning. The weak central coherence theory suggests that the central coherence tendency of autism is weakened, and autistics are difficult to integrate many elements into a whole, thus showing impairment in global processing and local processing preference when they discriminate melodic contour. The enhanced perceptual functioning indicates that autistics perform better in local processing of pitch contour, and they have no impairments in global processing. However, there are few empirical studies fully support the WCC theory or the EPF theory. That is, whether there are any advantages of the local processing or impairments of the global processing in autism still remains uncertain. However, it has been proved that autistics have normal or even better perception of pitch contour in general. Autistics showed poor perception of speech intonation, although they exhibited better ability to match pitch contour and visual analogy to the graph in speech. We argue that this may be due to the enhanced speech perception of subtle feature in autism. When autistics focus on the subtle feature, they may ignore others, even some key points. This limited attention may cause interference to other aspects of perceptual processing in autism. Moreover, high sensitivity to the subtle changes made autistics judge the same stimuli as different. Although autistics were able to match speech contour and visual analogy to the graph, they had difficulty in identifying “question vs. statement”. They had a tendency to judge question as statement. Little research focuses on production for both music and speech in autism. It has been reported that autistics sing and perform as well as the controls. However, they performed worse than the controls in speech production. In addition, autistics showed impaired speech imitation. In conclusion, with regard to pitch processing of music and speech in autism, many issues still remain uncertain. For example, researchers should pay attention to the different subjects of subgroup of autistics and add the sample size. Moreover, whether the advantage of music perception in autism would affect music emotion and comprehension activities remains to be further explored. Related Articles | Metrics

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Psychological Intervention for 555 Adolescents in High Risk Behaviors: the Contrast of Effects from the result of Individual and Group Counseling 2014, 37(1): 225-231.  Abstract ( )   PDF (444KB) ( )   Nowadays, high risk behaviors in adolescents are more and more critical and serious. However, the relative studies were most carried out to investigate the ratio of these behaviors. In the field of psychological intervention, there are few studies about the adolescents’ high risk behaviors. Accordingly， it is very important and valuable to conduct psychological intervention for the group of adolescents in high risk behaviors in accordance with individual situations. In this study, we worked out and implemented a practicable program which consist of structured individual counseling and group counseling to help high risk adolescents.. The aim of this research is to assess the effectiveness of the conseling intervention both in the end of the program instantly and six months later. We used the Adolescent Health related Risky Behavior Inventory (AHRBI) and the Mental Health Scale for secondary School Students(MHS-SSS) to choose subjects from 16 vocational schools in Wuhan and Jingzhou. Then 899 qualified students were screened from 7439 students. A sample of 555 adolescents was volunteered to participate this study. Their ages ranged from 14 to 19 years old (averaged age=16.4). These students were randomly assigned to three groups: (1) 207 in individual counseling group, (2) 139 in group counseling group, (3) 209 in control group. To assessment the effect of the intervention, we asked all the subjects to complete AHRBI, MHS-SSS, The Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) and Self-Rating Anxiety Scale (SAS) before and after the counseling, as well as six months later. The participants in group 1 had receive individual counseling for 3 times at weekly intervals. Each time lasted about 50 minutes. While participants in group 2 had received group counseling for 6 times, twice a week. Each time lasted about 90 minutes. The control group had no intervention. All interventions were focused on the topics of personality, family, study, emotion, relationship and sexual problems. As a result, after psychological intervention, the scores of the AHRBI, CES-D, and SAS of the students in individual counseling group became significantly lower than the control group(p<0.01), while the scores of the MHS-SSS became significantly higher(p<0.01). It showed that the levels of risk behaviors, mental health, depression and anxiety had all improved markedly. Moreover, the improvements lasted stably six months later. However, there was only a measurable reduction in students’ depression for group counseling(p<0.05). And there were no improvements in other aspects of group counseling students. It’s suggested that the psychological intervention for adolescents at high risk behaviors should be designed well. Specifically, individual counseling should be considered as the first and the main form of intervention, together with group counseling as supplementary form of intervention. Related Articles | Metrics

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Proteus Effect：A New Perspective on Virtual World Study 2014, 37(1): 232-239.  Abstract ( )   PDF (569KB) ( )   With the rapid development of virtual world, especially the ongoing integration between virtual reality and daily life, the impacts of virtual environment on users’ real life have gained great attention by current researchers. Users usually participate in online social interaction via virtual avatars. Avatars, as one kind of self-presentation in virtual environment, could affect users’ perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors in consciously or unconsciously on avatar-based online social interaction, which is known as the Proteus effect. In recent years, researchers have conducted a series of studies on Proteus effect. Existing researches on Proteus effect were mainly focused on the following four topics. At first, researchers clarified the concept of Proteus effect by distinguishing Proteus effect from behavioral confirmation and role playing. Secondly, researchers have summarized the influential factors of Proteus effect, including avatar’s valence and clue types, levels of individuation, and gender. Thirdly, researchers systematically discussed the effects of Proteus effect on users at both individual and group level, studies indicated that Proteus effect not only impacts the users’ information processing and attitude, but also influences users’ online behaviors, especially for aggressive and social behaviors. Finally, the potential occurrence mechanisms of the Proteus effect were explored based on the Self-perception Theory, and Deindividuation Theory. In summary, the previous researches provided a starting point for exploring psychological phenomena inside the virtual world. Future researches could focus on developing new research methods and paradigms, broadening research samples, and generalizing the current researches to cross cultural settings. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Classification and Optimization of Emotion Regulation Goals 2014, 37(1): 240-244.  Abstract ( )   PDF (328KB) ( )   For a long time, Researchers took more attention to the relationships between emotion regulation strategies and hedonic experience. But they did not answer the question that which emotion do I value and what do I want to feel? I feel better but it not enough, the social-functionalists accounted that, by regulating their emotions, people seek to achieve certain psychological outcomes or functions. Emotion-regulation strategies refer to the concrete approach that people take in managing their emotions (Koole, 2009). A systematic search of the literature identified 306 different emotion regulation strategies (Webb, et al., 2012), but Meta-analysis of the effectiveness of strategies only found a small effect. The functions of emotion regulation cut across all emotion-regulation strategies, and apply regardless of whether these strategies are directed to attention, knowledge, or the body. So values and goals in emotion regulation must be recognized as important things, because they are the casual agents of the processes in emotion regulation. Based on the different service function of emotion regulation, here come four types of emotion regulation goals. (a) The first goal is to increase positive emotional experiences to meet the need of hedonism. The purpose of this goal is to increase positive emotional experiences and to weaken the feeling of pain. Impulsive character often comes along with meeting the needs. (b) The second goal is to use emotion as a tool to deal with social interpersonal affairs. This goal emphasizes emotion as an important communicational symbol in social interpersonal communication. One can handle social interpersonal affairs through flexibly manipulate the expression behaviors of emotion. (c) The third goal is to integrate complex emotion experiences, so as to promote self growth. Stress is laid on strengthen inner-agreement of personality on a mental representative system and experiences level, through an integration of different kinds of emotions. (d) Refinement of culture promotes the combination of self and the world. This goal underlines the importance of refine self related emotion experiences through culture and realize the combination of self and outer world. The conflicts among different goal of emotion regulation mainly express as (a) conflicts among hedonic needs, instrument utility and cultural value expectancy. (b)conflicts among instrument utility, growth and cultural value expectancy. From a perspective of development, to increase coherence among different goals, e.g. the goal people are pursuing is not only pleasant but also proper, will maximize the feeling of happiness. Optimization regulation goals are important to long-term adaptation and happy experience. Future research will discuss implicit and explicit factors which have influence on goals of emotion regulation. More understand to temporarily adaptation of goals about increase happiness and reduce pain，and validity of value to pursue positive emotion. These researches have great reference value to mental health education and psychological counseling. Related Articles | Metrics

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The review of Involuntary Autobiographical Memories li-hong LI 2014, 37(1): 245-252.  Abstract ( )   PDF (539KB) ( )   An involuntary autobiographical memory (IAMs) is a memory of a personal experience brought to consciousness with apparent spontaneity, that is, without preceding attempts at retrieving it. This article presents and talks about four aspects，which are research methods of IAMs, three special properties of IAMs, the correlative theories and the future research emphasis and difficulties. Firstly, in this article presents research methods of IAMs. According to the memory content’s traumatic ,the IAMs consists of non-traumatic IAMs and traumatic IAMs (intrusive memory) .The research methods about non-traumatic memory are developed from the initial structure diary method to word-association task and vigilance task paradigm, the later are mainly used in laboratory. So far the structure diary method is the most classic research method, which is widely used in the property research of IAMs. Stressful film paradigm is worth learning for non-traumatic IAMs research method development. Secondly, the paper shows three special properties of IAMs and talks about how to explain them. The IAMs is the same as the voluntary autobiographical memory in many basic properties in the early studies. However, researchers not only did find the special features of the IAMs but also provided direct evidences for its theory construction. They are direct retrieval, content-specificity, and emotion-impact. The content of IAMs is about the specific event of personal life and has intensely emotional influence to human. They are content-specificity and emotion-impact. Their presence is based on the different reasons. Content-specificity’s presence is because a part of content of IAMs has not been integrated to the high-order autobiographical knowledge base and is linked intensively to cue. But it is the instant experience when retrieves IAMs that causes to happen emotion-impact. An involuntary autobiographical memory (IAMs) is a memory of a personal experience brought to consciousness with apparent spontaneity, that is, without preceding attempts at retrieving it. This article presents and talks about four aspects，which are research methods of IAMs, three special properties of IAMs, the correlative theories and the future research emphasis and difficulties. Firstly, in this article presents research methods of IAMs. According to the memory content’s traumatic ,the IAMs consists of non-traumatic IAMs and traumatic IAMs (intrusive memory) .The research methods about non-traumatic memory are developed from the initial structure diary method to word-association task and vigilance task paradigm, the later are mainly used in laboratory. So far the structure diary method is the most classic research method, which is widely used in the property research of IAMs. Stressful film paradigm is worth learning for non-traumatic IAMs research method development. Secondly, the paper shows three special properties of IAMs and talks about how to explain them. The IAMs is the same as the voluntary autobiographical memory in many basic properties in the early studies. However, researchers not only did find the special features of the IAMs but also provided direct evidences for its theory construction. The special features are emotion-impact, content-specificity and direct retrieval which mean that the IAMs is a kind of direct retrieval autobiographical memory. Their presence is based on the different reasons. Content-specificity’s presence is because a part of content of IAMs has not been integrated to the high-order autobiographical knowledge base and is linked intensively to cue. But it is the instant experience when retrieves IAMs that causes to happen emotion-impact. Thirdly, the article talks about the correlative theories of IAMs. Later developed global work space intelligent distribution theory shows that the IAMs results from the connection between representation set of clues and long-term memory content. This theory explains the rule of memory generation but not have a good explanation to the special features. Traumatic IAMs theories include dual representation theory and cognitive model theory. The two theories both have a good explanation to the formation of traumatic memory and performance of traumatic memory, meanwhile provide an induction for the treatment of clinical diseases. At last, the author discusses the future research emphasis and difficulties of IAMs. Research about IAMs should focus on three aspects: particularity qualitative interpretation, the integration of memory structure and exploration of memory function. (1)The interpretation of special features conclude two parts, one research probe into the principle of matching procedure in direct retrieval, the other study the impact factor of different rate of specific memory content. (2)The integration of the memory structure is to develop a unite theory about IAMs. (3)There are two functions for IAMs enlarging knowledge and mental defense. Retrieval of IAMs is a reintegration process, consequently the process will increase autobiographical knowledge base, and on the other hand, retrieval of IAMs can lighten and transform the negative memory and traumatic memory. At last, the author discusses the future research emphasis and difficulties of IAMs. Research about IAMs should focus on three aspects: particularity qualitative interpretation, the integration of memory structure and exploration of memory function. (1)The interpretation of special features conclude two parts, one research probe into the principle of matching procedure in direct retrieval, the other study the impact factor of different rate of specific memory content. (2)The integration of the memory structure is to develop a unite theory about IAMs. (3)There are two functions for IAMs enlarging knowledge and mental defense. Retrieval of IAMs is a reintegration process, consequently the process will increase autobiographical knowledge base, and on the other hand, retrieval of IAMs can lighten and transform the negative memory and traumatic memory. Related Articles | Metrics