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The Impact of Academic Performance on Academic Self-efficacy of Primary School Students: The Mediating Role of Academic Stress and Self-esteem and Its Gender Differences Li Wenhui, Jiang Feng Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (2): 347-354.   Abstract （1309）      PDF（pc） （1720KB）（1365）       Knowledge map    Save The stage of primary school is an important period for the development of students' academic self-efficacy. Previous studies of academic self-efficacy were mostly conducted from the perspective of its function and role, and the empirical research on the formation mechanism of academic self-efficacy was few. According to Bandura's self-efficacy theory, the effect factors of self-efficacy include individual success or failure experiences, individual emotion and physiological state. Among them, academic performance is the most direct factor affecting academic self-efficacy , and academic stress as a negative emotional experience will have a negative impact on academic self-efficacy. And, as a self-concept closely related to self-efficacy, self-esteem can also affect academic self-efficacy. In addition, there are gender differences in academic stress and self-esteem in primary school students. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to explore the impact of academic performance on academic self-efficacy in primary school students, as well as the chain mediating effect of academic stress and self-esteem, the moderating effect of gender. This study recruited 404 students (203 boys and 201 girls) from grade 4 to 6 in a primary school. The students' age were from 9 to 12 years, and average age was 10.14 (standard deviation was 1.32 years). All students filled out academic stress questionnaire, academic self-efficacy questionnaire and Rosenbers' self-esteem scale in a quiet classroom. We collected the academic performance of students from the nearest final examinations (Chinese, Math and English). SPSS 20.0 software and Amos 26.0 software were used for Common method biases analysis, correlation analysis, bootstrap mediating effect analysis and multiple group analysis. The results implicated that: (1) Primary school students' academic performance can positively predict academic self-efficacy. In other words, more academic performance of students can cultivate a higher level of academic self-efficacy. Thus, in primary school, we should help students to gain positive experience with high academic performance, which will effectively improve their academic self-efficacy. (2) In the relationship between academic performance and academic self-efficacy, academic stress and self-esteem played a role of chain mediated effect. Specifically, there were a negative mediated effect of academic stress, a positive mediated effect of self-esteem, and a chain mediated effect of self-esteem and academic stress. (3) There were gender differences in the chain mediating effect. In the girls group, there were a partial mediating effect and three mediating paths (the separate mediating effect of academic stress, the separate mediating effect of self-esteem and the chain mediating effect of academic stress and self-esteem); in the boys group, there were a complete mediating effect and two mediating paths (the separate mediating effect of self-esteem and the chain mediating effect of academic stress and self-esteem). This result suggested that we should pay attention to gender differences in the process of improving students' academic self-efficacy. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Influence of Daily Emotional Experiences on Self-Control: The Moderating Role of Conscious Effort Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (1): 57-64.   Abstract （1510）      PDF（pc） （1171KB）（1323）       Knowledge map    Save Electronics are becoming the most popular entertainment tool for adolescents today, which warnings are issued both nationally and internationally about relying too much on electronic devices. The overuse of electronic devices by college students is intended to obtain rich variety of emotional experiences with minimal effort, and the overuse of electronic devices is a typical manifestation of their lack of self-control. In this context, this paper examines the influence of daily emotional experiences of college students on self-control by two closely related studies and further explores the conditions and mechanisms of this influence. Purpose: The purpose of Study 1 was to understand the current situation of daily emotional experiences of college students, such as the nature and source of daily emotional experiences, the level of conscious effort and the length of time of playing with electronic devices, etc.; In study 2, eligible subjects were chosen the basis of study 1. In addition, self-control variables were added in order to examine the effects of emotional experiences induced by different levels of conscious effort on college students' self-control. Methods: A questionnaire survey and experimental intervention were conducted among 300 college students from freshmen to juniors in Jiangsu province by cluster sampling method. Results: Study 1 found that the difference between positive and negative emotions experienced by college students in daily life was significant, and positive emotions were predominant. At the same time, the sources of emotional stimuli with low conscious effort were significantly more than those with high conscious effort, and the main sources of emotional experiences were not the same for boys and girls: boys' positive and negative emotional experiences were mainly derived from playing games and sports, while girls' were mostly derived from movies and videos, interpersonal relationships, etc. Study 2 found that the method of "conscious effort" successfully induced daily emotional experiences; the main effect of daily emotional experiences on self-control was not significant; conscious effort significantly and positively predicted self-control, and high levels of conscious effort played a positive moderating role in the relationship between daily emotional experiences and self-control. Conclusions: (1) College students' daily emotional experiences differed significantly and were dominated by positive emotional experiences, while the sources of emotional stimuli with low conscious effort were more than those with high conscious effort; (2) College students' daily emotional experiences did not have significant predictive effects on self-control, while conscious effort significantly and positively predicted self-control, and high levels of conscious effort played a moderating role in the relationship between daily emotional experiences and self-control. This research has important theoretical significance and practical value. On the practical level: Inducing emotional experience through conscious efforts not only provides a new path for emotional regulation, but also improves students' self-control behavior, which is more helpful to reduce students' dependence on mobile phones and internet addiction. On the theoretical level: First, the classification of promoting emotional experience, that is, emotional experience induced by conscious efforts or unconscious efforts; The second is to expand and deepen the theoretical model of "unconscious emotion"; Third, it is the first time to prove that "this happiness is different from that happiness", which will directly promote the study of the value field of emotion! Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Neural Mechanism of Language Context Influencing Self-bias Kong Chao, Liu Huanhuan, Liu Linyan, Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (2): 258-265.   Abstract （1227）      PDF（pc） （1186KB）（1175）       Knowledge map    Save It is well known that different languages have different impacts on human cognition, emotion, and physiological states. In the context of native language, individuals tend to associate positive emotions with themselves, and negative emotions with others. This leads to the self-positive and other-negative bias. However, using a foreign language may reduce emotional involvement. We hypothesized that using a foreign language may affect the connection between identity (self vs. other) and emotion (positive vs. negative) through reducing emotional involvement. In addition, we hypothesized that the ability of language control when they switch between two languages may also affect bilinguals’ connection between identity and emotion. Language control refers to the choice of using the target language in a specific situation and inhibiting the interference of non-target language. Participants do not need to switch between languages in the monolingual context, which requires less inhibitory processing (global language control occurred). In contrast, participants have to switch from one language to another in bilingual context frequently by inhibiting the interference from nontarget language (local language control occurred). We hypothesized that connection between identity and emotion occurred automatically under global language control, while it required more cognitive resources under local language control. Thus, the automatic process may be weakened in the context of mixed language. In the current study, bilingual context and monolingual context were designed. The stimuli in each scanning run was either presented in twolanguage or in one-language context, corresponding to local and global language control. The variables of language (Chinese vs. English), identity (Self vs. Others) and emotional valence (Positive vs. Negative) were manipulated. Identity cues were represented by " 我", " 他", "I" and "He". The data of 29 unbalanced bilinguals whose native language was Chinese were collected by fMRI scanner. In each trial, the identity cues were presented first, followed by emotional words. The participants were required to determine whether the emotional words were true or pseudoword words (false words were generated by replacing radicals or letters of real words), and their reactions were recorded. The DPABI and SPM were then used to preprocess the data and do F test. For the brain regions with significant interactions of identity and emotional valence, we extracted the beta value of brain region and performed repeated measures ANOVA to compare the activation of different conditions. At the same time, repeated measures ANOVA was also performed for the reaction times. The fMRI results showed that in the monolingual L2 context, the left inferior frontal gyrus and the left inferior parietal lobule showed greater activation in the other-positive condition and the self-negative condition than that in the self-positive condition and the other-negative condition. In bilingual L1 context, the right precuneus exhibited significantly greater activation in self-positive condition than other-positive condition. The response times results showed that the reaction of the self-positive condition was faster than that of the other-positive condition in the monolingual L1 and L2 context, respectively. In the bilingual L2 context, the reaction of the other-negative condition was faster than that of the self-negative condition. Based on the findings, we infer that: (1) In the monolingual L2 context, the self-negative and the other-positive bias were in conflict with each other because they were not consistent with the self-positive bias. The frontoparietal network was employed to process the conflicts. (2) The precuneus activity in the bilingual L1 context may reflect the attribution processes that distinguishing others’ emotions and self-emotion, leading to one of them is more sensitive to self. (3) The differences between global and local language control may indicate that bilinguals have more cognitive resources to solve the conflicts between identity and emotion in foreign language context (global language control occurred), while in the context of mixed language, more cognitive resources are required when processing L2 than L1 (local language control occurred). It seems that participants have extra cognitive resources to process the association between identity and emotion when using their native language. Overall, these findings suggest that language context induces bilinguals’ language control, which affects their resolution of the conflicts between identity and emotional valence. Key words language context, language control, self-bias, emotion, left inferior frontal gyrus, left inferior parietal lobule, right precuneus Participants do not need to switch between languages in the monolingual context, which requires less inhibitory processing (global language control occurred). In contrast, participants have to switch from one language to another in bilingual context frequently by inhibiting the interference from nontarget language (local language control occurred). We hypothesized that connection between identity and emotion occurred automatically under global language control, while it required more cognitive resources under local language control. Thus, the automatic process may be weakened in the context of mixed language. In the current study, bilingual context and monolingual context were designed. The stimuli in each scanning run was either presented in twolanguage or in one-language context, corresponding to local and global language control. The variables of language (Chinese vs. English), identity (Self vs. Others) and emotional valence (Positive vs. Negative) were manipulated. Identity cues were represented by " 我", " 他", "I" and "He". The data of 29 unbalanced bilinguals whose native language was Chinese were collected by fMRI scanner. In each trial, the identity cues were presented first, followed by emotional words. The participants were required to determine whether the emotional words were true or pseudoword words (false words were generated by replacing radicals or letters of real words), and their reactions were recorded. The DPABI and SPM were then used to preprocess the data and do F test. For the brain regions with significant interactions of identity and emotional valence, we extracted the beta value of brain region and performed repeated measures ANOVA to compare the activation of different conditions. At the same time, repeated measures ANOVA was also performed for the reaction times. The fMRI results showed that in the monolingual L2 context, the left inferior frontal gyrus and the left inferior parietal lobule showed greater activation in the other-positive condition and the self-negative condition than that in the self-positive condition and the other-negative condition. In bilingual L1 context, the right precuneus exhibited significantly greater activation in self-positive condition than other-positive condition. The response times results showed that the reaction of the self-positive condition was faster than that of the other-positive condition in the monolingual L1 and L2 context, respectively. In the bilingual L2 context, the reaction of the other-negative condition was faster than that of the self-negative condition. Based on the findings, we infer that: (1) In the monolingual L2 context, the self-negative and the other-positive bias were in conflict with each other because they were not consistent with the self-positive bias. The frontoparietal network was employed to process the conflicts. (2) The precuneus activity in the bilingual L1 context may reflect the attribution processes that distinguishing others’ emotions and self-emotion, leading to one of them is more sensitive to self. (3) The differences between global and local language control may indicate that bilinguals have more cognitive resources to solve the conflicts between identity and emotion in foreign language context (global language control occurred), while in the context of mixed language, more cognitive resources are required when processing L2 than L1 (local language control occurred). It seems that participants have extra cognitive resources to process the association between identity and emotion when using their native language. Overall, these findings suggest that language context induces bilinguals’ language control, which affects their resolution of the conflicts between identity and emotional valence. 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Influencing Factors in the Allocation of Cognitive Control: Rewards and Costs Si Shuangqing, Zhou Sihong, Yuan Jiajin, Yang Qian Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 258-266.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240201 Abstract （1159）      PDF（pc） （1015KB）（1156）       Knowledge map    Save Cognitive control refers to people’s ability to adaptively employ cognitive resources and adjust cognitive processes in pursuit of goal-directed behavior. Since naturally occurring behavioral situations are constantly changing, people would mobilize their control adaptively. According to the Expected Value of Control (EVC) model, the dynamic adjustment of control can be thought of as value-based decision making, centered on the integration of rewards and costs that can be expected from a control-demanding task. Hence, reward and cost are two key factors jointly modulating people’s motivation and determining the allocation of control. Following this framework but going beyond the EVC model, the current review elucidated the role of various motivation-related factors that can act as rewards or costs in the implementation of cognitive control, and discussed how they collectively adjust cognitive control. More specifically, money, juice, or emotional/social stimuli are extrinsic rewards that can drive cognitive control and improve task performance, albeit with a few exceptions. Considering this complexity, other factors can further modulate the beneficial effects (e.g., reward-poor vs. reward-rich task conditions, the congruity of reward and task performance, and individual reward sensitivity). Besides, in contrast to extrinsic rewards that are manipulated externally, intrinsic rewards are highly integrated into control-related tasks. It can be reflected in people’s autonomic engagement with certain tasks and the positive emotions they generated. In this sense, the investigation of the influence of intrinsic rewards on cognitive control is relatively indirect, which can be achieved by adjusting effort levels and positive emotions. Relatedly, individual differences in intrinsic motivation, as reflected by the need for cognition (NFC), are also closely tied to intrinsic rewards in driving control. That is, individuals high in need for cognition are more inclined to be involved in control demanding tasks and to persist in difficult or unprofitable cognitive tasks. Meanwhile, due to the presence of cognitive costs associated with exerting cognitive control, individuals typically show a bias toward opting for “low-effort” tasks, while decreasing the subjective value of the expected value. When discussing the impact of costs on cognitive control, it is necessary to consider the trade-off between rewards and costs. Previous studies have demonstrated that this trade-off process may vary among individuals based on their willingness to invest effort and their capacity to exert effort, depending on whether they place a higher value on rewards or costs. Consequently, we have further delineated the control signal intensity to effort levels and introduced the concept of “Subjective Expected Value of Control”, which is determined by the difference between the Subjective Value of Reward and the Subjective Value of Cost. Furthermore, the reward-cost trade-off is inherently dynamic, with individuals adapting their cognitive control with the automaticity of task performance in a given task, or in response to feature transfer across different task situations. Nonetheless, some unanswered questions need to be further investigated. Firstly, the mechanism underlying the reward-cost trade-off requires refinement. As individuals persistently allocate control, their instantaneous subjective evaluation of the rewards and costs expected from the current task may change dynamically. Although several theories have introduced dynamic elements to the EVC model in various ways, a fully dynamic representation of the reward-costs trade-off remains a topic of ongoing exploration. Secondly, the subjective trade-off between rewards and costs can be further modulated by additional individual factors closely related to external and internal motivations. Consequently, it is intriguing to explore how individual differences in reward sensitivity, cognitive need, intrinsic motivation, and opportunity costs may dynamically impact subjective evaluation of the rewards and costs of investing cognitive effort. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Influence of Mobile Phone Dependence on the Development of Social Anxiety in Junior High School Students: Longitudinal Mediating Effect of Body Shame Zeng Yixin, Zhang Bin, Xiong Sicheng, Long Zhuan, Zhang Anqi, Zeng Chengwei, Liu Jiaxi, Yang Ying Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 316-324.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240208 Abstract （870）      PDF（pc） （1023KB）（1083）       Knowledge map    Save Social anxiety is a common emotional feature in the growth of children and adolescents. It mainly refers to the emotional experience of tension and anxiety when individuals interact with others in real life, which has a certain degree of negative impact on interpersonal skills, personal growth, development potential, and life attitude. In view of the multiplicity of social anxiety and its extensive influence, researchers have paid close attention to it in recent years, and it is particularly important to explore its influencing factors and developmental mechanisms. In particular, indulging in mobile phones may lead to the degradation of individual social skills, which in turn may induce social anxiety and other adaptation problems. At the same time, the propaganda of the ideal body image in media may cause the conflict between the ideal and reality among junior high school students, and deepen the shame of their own bodies. Previous studies have also shown that physical shame may play a mediating role in the relationship between mobile phone dependence and social anxiety. However, most literature still uses the traditional analysis method of comparing the change of mean value, which is unable to provide information of the complete development rate of variables, and it is difficult to accurately grasp the dynamic development process among variables. Therefore, this study intends to take junior high school students as the research subjects, using the two indicators of initial level and development rate in the latent growth model, to examine the developmental trend of mobile phone dependence in junior high school students, body shame, and social anxiety from a dynamic perspective, and further explore the internal mechanisms of the three. Using the Mobile Phone Dependence Scale, the Body Shame Scale, and the Social Communication Anxiety Scale, 339 junior high school students from two middle schools in Hunan Province were followed for three times in a year. All data were analyzed using SPSS 26.0 and Mplus 7.0. The first step is to use SPSS 26.0 for descriptive statistics and correlation analysis. Secondly, using Mplus 7.0 to build an unconditional latent growth model to examine the development trend of each variable, in which the intercept represents the initial state and the slope represents the development rate. The third step is to establish a conditional latent growth model to test whether the development track of social anxiety is directly affected by mobile phone dependence. The fourth step is to construct a structural equation model to explore the relationship between intercept and slope of mobile phone dependence, body shame, and social anxiety. The results showed that: (1) Mobile phone dependence, body shame and social anxiety in junior high school students all showed a steady upward trend, and the initial level and development rate of social anxiety were significantly negatively correlated. (2) The initial level and development rate of mobile phone dependence can directly predict the initial level and development rate of social anxiety respectively. (3) The initial level and development rate of body shame played a complete longitudinal mediating role in the mechanism of the influence of mobile phone dependence on the development of social anxiety. Based on the longitudinal time course and the latent growth model, this study systematically explored the changing track, characteristics, and dynamic relationship among junior high school students' mobile phone dependence, body shame, and social anxiety, and accurately described the development and possible mechanisms of adolescent social anxiety and its risk factors. The results supported the Social Replacement Hypothesis, the Tripartite Influence Model, and the Cognitive Model of Social Anxiety, which has practical guiding significance for deepening the understanding of junior high school students' social anxiety, establishing effective detection and intervention measures, and promoting the mental health development of junior high school students. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Influence of Social Exclusion on The Visual Working Memory Capacity Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (1): 11-18.   Abstract （1114）      PDF（pc） （879KB）（1024）       Knowledge map    Save Present study explores the influence of social exclusion on the visual working memory capacity (WMC) of nonsocial and social stimuli. A cyberball game was used to manipulate social exclusion. Nonsense shapes (NS) in study 1 were adopted as nonsocial stimuli, while biology motion (BM) in study 2a and human faces in study 2b were adopted as social stimuli. In study 1, 49 participants were asked to remember 1 - 4 NS. The results showed that socially excluded participants had a lower WMC than the socially accepted group. In Experiment 2a and 2b, 44 and 54 participants were asked to remember 1-5 BM and 1 - 4 human faces showing three different emotions (angry, happy, neutral). The results demonstrated that socially excluded participants had a larger WMC than the compared group in BM and three types of emotional face. The results of study 1 and 2 suggested social exclusion would exert an influence on individual's visual WMC, but the direction of this effect may be inconsistent due to the different attributes of the stimuli, when the stimulus is non-social stimuli unrelated to belonging need, social exclusion would reduce the individual's visual WMC. When the stimulus is social stimuli associated with the belonging need (neutral & emotional), the visual WMC of the individual would increase. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Parental Responses to Negative Emotions and the Potential Risk of Personality Disorder in Adolescence Wenjuan Zhang Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (3): 586-593.   Abstract （914）      PDF（pc） （868KB）（1014）       Knowledge map    Save For a long time, clinicians and researchers have opposed giving children and adolescents a personality disorder diagnosis. However, a burgeoning number of empirical evidence made it clear that personality disorders occurred in childhood and adolescence. There are a large body of research supporting the important role of family influences on the development of particular type of personality disorder, especially the relationships between family emotional environment and borderline personality disorders. But it is inappropriate to evaluate adolescents’ personality from the perspective of categorical model of personality disorders, which may increase the stigmatization and impede the development of personality. Dimensional perspective of personality disorders in DSM-5 Section III (Negative Affectivity, Detachment, Antagonism, Disinhibition, and Psychoticism) is considered a better approach to define personality disorders in childhood and adolescence. Because it helps us understand adolescents’ maladaptive personality traits from a developmental psychopathology perspective and connects personality development during childhood and adolescence with adult personality disorders, other than labeling them personality disorder categories. Thus, the present study seeks to evaluate adolescents’ pathological personality traits from the perspective of dimensional model of personality disorders. We aimed to explore the profiles of adolescents’ pathological personality traits and its associations with parents' responses to negative emotions. First, we identified maladaptive personality profiles of adolescents based on 25 pathological personality traits in the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5). Then we further tested the group differences of parental responses to negative emotions on adolescents’ maladaptive personality profiles. Last, we examined the interactions between parental non-supportive and supportive reactions to negative emotions on the development of adolescents’ pathological personality traits. The study was conducted in six middle schools in mainland China. Seven hundred and one adolescents were recruited in this sample. Due to a large number of missing data (> 10%) or suspected random responding, 59 participants were excluded from analyses. The final sample (642 adolescents) comprised the following distribution: 53.6% male, 46.4% female; grade 7 (41%), grade 8 (46%), and grade 10 (13%). The school principals and head teachers coordinated the assessment procedure. All the participants were informed that participation in this study was voluntary and their answers were confidential. Researchers went to each classroom to make the instructions consistent and clear. The Personality Inventory for DSM-5 and Parental Responses to Adolescents’ Negative Emotions Scale were conducted by paper and pencil during regular daily classes in each classroom with 40-60 students. It took about 35-50 minutes to finish the whole questionnaires. We provided free lectures about personality development in adolescence as a reward. The results demonstrated that: (1) three profiles of adolescents’ pathological personality traits were identified: low-risk (25%; low scores across the 25 low-order pathological traits), median-risk (49.1%; median scores across the 23 low-order pathological traits, with the exception of Impulsivity and Rigid Perfectionism), and high-risk (24.9%; high scores across the 25 low-order pathological traits). (2) Adolescents in the three personality disorder risk profiles demonstrated significantly different on all the parental reactions to negative emotions. Specifically, parental warmth/responsiveness and punishment to negative emotions showed significantly different across the three profiles. However, parental expressive encouragement showed non-significant between low-risk and median-risk profiles, whereas parental minimization showed non-significant between median-risk and high-risk profiles. (3) The moderating effect of parental supportive reactions on the relationship between parental non-supportive reactions and adolescents’ pathological personality traits was significant. When parents' supportive response modes were relatively high, the negative path effects were weakened. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Temporal Emotion Asymmetry and its Relationship with Moral Judgment and Value Evaluation Xie Ruyue, Jin Lei, Hao Haiping, Du Gang, Li Xiaobao, Lyu Houchao Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (3): 530-537.   Abstract （960）      PDF（pc） （327KB）（962）       Knowledge map    Save Abstract: Mental time travel refers to the faculty that allows humans to mentally project themselves backward in time to relive or forward to pre-live events. Mentally reliving past events is also known as episodic memory in the literature. Mentally reliving future events is also known as episodic future thinking. Previous studies have found that past and future mental time travels share phenomenological characteristics and activate similar brain parts. Other studies have found differences between them, with individuals leaning more towards the future. Of particular relevance to the phenomenon of future bias are studies that have examined temporal emotion asymmetry. Temporal emotion asymmetry refers to people experiencing greater affect when thinking about the future than the affect they experience when thinking about the past. This is true for both positively and negatively valenced events. Emotion differences between past and future thinking are robust and emerge early in development. Previous studies found that temporal emotion asymmetry appears to be present in children from at least 6 years onward, and once established the size of the temporal emotion asymmetry effect did not vary by age or scenario. This article explains the temporal emotion asymmetry from the perspectives of mental simulation and psychological distance. First, the difference between future and past mental simulation may be an important factor affecting the temporal emotions asymmetry. Mental simulation refers to how an individual projects himself onto different events, spaces, or hypothetical reality, a human-specific ability. Compared to simulating past events, people who simulate future events are typically based primarily on focal aspects of events to the neglect of more peripheral event features or aspects of the event context that might moderate affective impact, and this can systematically lead to overestimations of the affective impact of events in the future. Second, one reason people are more emotionally oriented to the future is that the future is psychologically closer to the past. The reduction of psychological distance leads to an increase in the intensity of emotional experience. TEA can influence temporal value asymmetry and temporal asymmetries in moral judgment. (1) Temporal value asymmetry refers to people’s tendency to value future experiences more than equivalent experiences in the equidistant past. For example, Individuals believe they should be paid more for doing the same job a month later than when they did a job a month ago. The reason why they make these asymmetrical valuations is that contemplating future events produces greater affect than does contemplate past events. (2) Logically, an unethical behavior performed yesterday should also be unethical if performed tomorrow. However, previous studies suggest that the timing of a transgression has a systematic effect on people’s beliefs about its moral acceptability. Future transgressions are judged to be more deliberate, less moral, and more worthy of punishment than equivalent transgressions in the past (we will label these temporal asymmetries in moral judgment). Because people’s emotional reactions tend to be more extreme for future events than for past events, such emotional reactions often guide moral intuitions, and judgments of moral behavior may be more extreme in prospect than in retrospect. Future research directions include (1) Temporal emotion asymmetry under different temporal orientations. Temporal orientation, also known as temporal focus, refers to the degree to which people pay attention to the past, present, and future, as well as the tendency to produce emotional and behavioral responses to these time zones; (2) Considering the temporal emotion asymmetry of depressed groups; (3) Exploring the differences in temporal emotion asymmetry from different perspectives. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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THE INFLUENCE OF POSITIVE EMOJIS ON CONSUMERS’ PURCHASE INTENTION Wang Yaqin, Liu Zishuang, Jiang Jiang Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (2): 435-442.   Abstract （968）      PDF（pc） （1442KB）（902）       Knowledge map    Save With the development of social networks, emojis have become an important tool for people’s daily communication. Sometimes it is difficult for us to express emotions to each other through words. Emojis can solve the “double blind” embarrassment of cross-screen interaction. Now that emojis are not limited to social communication, they have also begun to be widely used in the product marketing field. Two experiments are designed in this research to investigate whether positive emojis can promote consumers’ purchase intentions and explore the mediator effect of involvement and moderator effect of product type. Before the formal study, a pre-survey on the usage trend of emojis had been done. The survey showed that more than 90% of consumers use emojis more frequently. Most of them show a positive attitude and a high evaluation of the use of positive emojis in product design, and think that positive emojis are more suitable for FMCG (Fast Moving Consumer Goods), not luxury goods, such as specific performance in the three categories of food and beverage, daily necessities and clothing. But positive emojis are not applicable to electronic products, luxury goods and other valuables. Study 1 attaches positive emojis to products to explore the influence of positive emojis on purchase intention in product design. This study used a single-factor inter-subject design. In this study, 202 subjects were recruited, 15 subjects who did not answer seriously were excluded, 47 subjects were excluded from group manipulation of independent variables, and 140 subjects remained, which was divided into three groups: positive emoji group (n = 39), blank control group (n = 61) and pattern group (n = 40). It was found that positive emojis in the design of products increased consumers’ involvement, and thus increased their purchase intention, compared with blank controls and patterns (Mpositive emoji group = 4.78, SDpositive emoji group = 1.42; Mpattern group = 3.76, SDpattern group = 1.27; Mcontrol group = 3.09, SDcontrol group = 1.17; F(2,136) = 22.30, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.25). On the basis of Study 1, Study 2 added the moderating variable——product type (hedonic/utilitarian) to further explore whether there are boundary conditions for the influence of positive emojis on consumers’ purchase intention. Slightly different from Study 1, Study 2 used positive emojis in product advertisements and divided the products into hedonic products and utilitarian products to explore the effect of positive emojis on purchase intention in different product types. This study adopted a 2×2 inter-subject design. 212 subjects were assigned randomly to one of four conditions: positive emoji-hedonic (n = 52), positive emoji-utilitarian (n = 54), non-emoji-hedonic (n = 53), non-emoji-utilitarian (n = 53). Studies have shown that positive emojis can further increase consumers’ intention to purchase hedonic products, while when the products are utilitarian, the presence or absence of positive emojis has a relatively small effect on consumers’ purchase intentions (t(210) = 6.40, p < 0.001, d = 0.13). Examining the model of moderated mediating effect, it was found that the process of positive emojis influencing the purchase intention through the involvement is moderated by the product type, and there was a moderated mediating model. Through two experiments, this study revealed that under two marketing methods, product design(Study 1) and advertising(Study 2), positive emojis have a positive impact on consumers’ purchase intention, and positive emojis further improve consumers’ purchase intention by increasing their involvement. And positive emojis are more likely to increase consumers’ purchase intention to hedonistic products than utilitarian ones. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Influence of Preview on Contextual Predictability Effects during Reading Zhao Sainan, Li Lin, Zhang Lijuan, Wang Jingxin Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (4): 770-778.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230401 Abstract （1008）      PDF（pc） （1514KB）（870）       Knowledge map    Save Most previous research have found contextual predictability effects eliminated in invalid preview which indicates contextual predictability effects depend on valid preview (like normal reading). The researchers manipulated invalid preview conditions by presenting various kinds of words or nonwords that were different from target words in parafoveal vision. It has been well established that invalid preview can cause various costs that may overwrite the contextual predictability effects. However, it is still hard to tell which is the cause of the elimination of contextual predictability effects in invalid preview conditions: the cost caused by invalid preview, or the absence of valid preview. Solving this problem is crucial to understand how the top-bottom predictability is influenced by bottom-top preview information. The present research investigated this effect with incremental paradigm by manipulating parafovea without preview information. EyeLink 1000 Plus eye-tracker recorded participants' (40 participants in experiment 1 and 44 participants in experiment 2) right-eye gaze when they read the sentences that contained target words. Sentences were displayed in Song font in black-on-gray text on a 24-inch ASUS LCD monitor (1920×1080 pixels) with each character subtended approximately 0.9 degrees of visual angle. Experiment 1 was a 2(contextual predictability: high, low)×2(preview type: normal, none)within subjects design. Stimuli were 164 sets of Chinese sentences containing two interchangeable target words that were of either high or low contextual predictability. There was no preview information before directly fixed word in none preview condition, which was different from normal reading pattern and may influence the results. The aim of experiment 2 was to further verify and extend the findings from experiment 1 in a more normal reading form. In order to create a normal reading pattern with minimal interference for vocabulary processing, experiment 2 used meaningless and simple ※ as invalid preview. It was a 2 (contextual predictability: high, low) × 2(preview type: normal, ※) within subjects design. The results showed clear effects of preview type in both experiments with shorter reading times and word skipping rate for normal preview condition, in line with findings from previous studies. It also replicated robust and reliable contextual predictability effects on eye movement time measures (first fixation duration, gaze duration, total reading time) in both experiment 1 and experiment 2, which were contributed to longer fixation durations for high predictability words than low predictability words. More importantly, the current results showed no interaction between contextual predictability and preview types on any measures in both experiment 1 and experiment 2. It suggested that the contextual predictability effects with none preview and ※ preview were similar to normal preview. The results of Bayes analyses also provided strong evidence for the additive models. The key point of present study is the interaction between contextual predictability and preview type. The robust addictive effects suggest the elimination of contextual predictability effects in invalid previews is not due to the lack of valid preview but the overwrite of the invalid preview costs. Therefore, this research indicates contextual predictability influences word processing independently rather than depending on the valid preview information. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Warmth or Competence? Preference for Warmth and Competence in Cooperation Yan Yiren, Liu Ning Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (3): 594-602.   Abstract （743）      PDF（pc） （530KB）（850）       Knowledge map    Save Warmth (including friendliness, trustworthiness, well-being, and morality) and competence (related to goal attainment, including competence, ambition, intelligence, efficiency) are the two fundamental dimensions (i.e. Big Two) in social cognition. Previous research explored the relationship between warmth and competence and found that warmth judgments were primary. However, there are certain boundary conditions for the primacy of warmth. Previous research indicated that interdependence might have moderate effect on the primacy of warmth, but the conditions under which interdependence leads to a reversal of the primacy of warmth to the primacy of competence have not been clearly answered. The current study proposes the “interest-interdependence hypothesis”, which states that in an interest interdependent relationship, the primacy of warmth is reversed to the primacy of competence. This study intends to compare preferences for warmth and competence in short-term cooperation with strangers and test the “interest-interdependence hypothesis” by comparing cooperation and neutral scenarios. Study 1a explored preferences for warmth and competence in cooperation from the perspective of others and tested the “interest-interdependence hypothesis”. Fifty university students were assigned to 2 (scenario: cooperation scenario vs. neutral scenario) × 2 (dimension: warmth vs. competence) mixed design. Half of the participants in the cooperation group read the cooperation scenario materials and others in the neutral group read the neutral scenario material. Then all the participants received a list of 16 traits (8 on warmth dimension, 8 on competence dimension) and were asked to choose 8 of them. The results of Study 1a showed that more warmth trait words (as compared to words on the competence dimension) were chosen in neutral group and more competence words (as compared to words on the warmth dimension) were chosen in cooperation group. Study 1b used the warmth and competence trait importance rating task to replicate preferences for warmth and competence in cooperation when perceiving others. Seventy participants were recruited and assigned to mixed design (same as study 1a). Participants in both groups read the corresponding scenario material separately (as in study 1a), and then they were asked to rate the importance of 30 traits (15 on warmth dimension, 15 on competence dimension) in evaluating others in the scenarios they just read. The results showed that, participants in neutral group scored significantly higher on warmth than competence. In contrast, participants in the cooperation group scored significantly higher on competence than warmth. Taken together, findings from these two studies provided evidence to support our “interest-interdependence hypothesis” from the perspective of others. Study 2 explored preferences for warmth and competence in cooperation from the perspective of self. Seventy-six university students were randomly assigned to cooperation group and neutral group, and then read the corresponding scenario material separately (same as in study 1a and 1b). Then they were asked to rate the importance of 30 traits (same as study 1b) in evaluating themselves. The results showed that competence traits were rated as more important than warmth traits in both groups, but the primacy of competence was more pronounced in the cooperation group. The present study not only answers, for the first time, the question of which is more important in cooperation, warmth or competence, but also clarifies the the conditions for the reversal of the primacy of warmth to the primacy of competence in the interdependence and provides initial evidence for the “interest-interdependence hypothesis”. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Association between Parenting and Early Adolescents’ Depression: The Moderating Effects of Cumulative Gene Scores and Negative Life Events Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (1): 203-211.   Abstract （729）      PDF（pc） （1151KB）（847）       Knowledge map    Save Depression is a widespread emotional disorder and mental health problem worldwide, and it is also one of the main causes of the burden of disease and disability. Early adolescence is a critical period for depression onset. According to ecological system theory, parenting as an important family factor, is significantly associated with depression. However, it is well-known that not all individuals who have experienced high levels of negative parenting or low levels of positive parenting would suffer from depression. Behavioral genetics studies have shown that COMT gene, 5-HTR1A gene and BDNF gene are important candidate genes for depression. Negative life events have also been indicated to play a key role in depression development. Additionally, developmental contextualism holds that an individual’s development is affected by the interaction of different situations in which it is located. However, it is unclear whether negative life events can co-moderate parenting with polygenes on early adolescent depression. Furthermore, extensive studies have demonstrated that there are gender differences in the interaction of genes and environment on depression. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the moderating role of cumulative genes score (CGS) and negative life events on the association between parenting and early adolescent depression, and its possible gender difference. Participants were 745 adolescents (Mage = 13.36 years, male = 53.29%) from Grades 7 to 9. The adolescent depression, parenting and negative life events were assessed using Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scales (CES-D), parenting questionnaire and adolescent life events scale, respectively. All measures showed good reliability. DNA was extracted from saliva. Genotypes at Val158Met polymorphism, C-1019G polymorphism and Val66Met polymorphism were performed for each participant with MassARRAY RT software version 3.0.0.4 and analyzed using the MassARRAY Typer software version 3.4 (Sequenom). A series of hierarchical regressions were conducted to test the three-way interactions among cumulative gene scores of three polymorphisms, parenting and negative life events on depressive symptoms, separately for male and female adolescents. The Benjamini-Hochberg program (1995) was used to correct the significance of the regression analysis results to reduce the incidence of type I errors. The results revealed that there was a significant association between parenting and depression. That is, adolescents exhibited more depression when exposed to higher negative parenting or lower positive parenting. Besides, the cumulative gene scores and negative life events could significantly moderate the effect of paternal positive parenting on adolescent depression, but this moderating effect only existed in male adolescents. Specifically, among male adolescents who experienced more negative life events and carried more plasticity alleles, the paternal positive parenting could negatively predict adolescent depression, whereas such association was not observed among their counterparts. Additionally, the findings indicated that both negative parenting and maternal positive parenting had no significant interactions with cumulative gene scores and negative life events. In summary, the results of our investigation indicated that polygenes and negative life events could moderate the effect of parenting on early adolescent depression, and there was a gender difference in the moderating effect. Our findings highlight the importance of considering multiple genes and multiple environments when examining the underlying mechanism of early adolescent depression, and also provide important implications for the personalized intervention of adolescent depression. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The audio-visual integration and pre-preparation effects in emotion and timing discrimination tasks YuChen Li Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (1): 3-10.   Abstract （855）      PDF（pc） （976KB）（846）       Knowledge map    Save Emotional audio-visual integration is an effective way to transmit and decode emotional information, which is of great significance to human survival and evolution. In multisensory integration, it is generally understood that one sensory signal promotes or alters the perception of other sensory signals. Studies have shown that the cross-sensory pre-preparation effect between visual and auditory is a key influencing factor of emotional audio-visual integration. However, it has not received much attention in the pre-preparation effect, particularly with regard to the emotional dimension. And previous research did not distinguish the emotional pre-preparation effect from the cross-sensory pre-preparation effect. Thus the present two studies started from the perspective of these two pre-preparation effects to gain insight into the emotional audio-visual integration processing mechanism. Experiment 1 adopted the time order judgment and simultaneous judgment tasks. Participants were asked to determine the chronological sequence of the visual and auditory stimuli, or whether they were presented at the same time. Experiment 2 adopted the emotion discrimination tasks. Participants were required to determine the emotional valence of visual, auditory, or audio-visual stimuli. The purpose of these two studies was to examine the influence of pre-preparation effects on emotional audio-visual integration either in the time or emotional cognitive dimensions. In Experiment 1, the response time of the visual-leading condition was significantly slower than the auditory-leading condition, and the accuracy was significantly lower than the auditory-leading condition. However, the amount of relative multisensory response enhancement （rMRE） for each condition of audiovisual integration was negative. It meant that audio-visual integration did not have many advantages compared with the single visual or auditory sensory. In Experiment 2, the rMRE of the negative emotion in auditory-leading condition was significantly greater than that in the visual-leading condition; the rMRE of the positive emotion in visual-leading condition was significantly greater than auditory-leading condition; however, the difference between the visual- and the auditory-leading condition on the rMRE of the neutral emotion was not significant. These research results showed that in the temporal dimension, the mechanism of the audio-visual integration was manifested as the feature matching processing cross the visual and auditory, and a better pre-preparation effect for the presentation time was in auditory than visual sensory. In the emotional cognitive dimension, the integration of the emotional information among the visual and auditory sensory had occurred with the positive rMRE amount, and the better emotional preparation effect had been discovered in the visual sensory than the auditory. Moreover, auditory channels played a greater role when integrating negative emotions, while visual channels dominate when integrating positive emotions. In summary, present experimental evidence showed that the enhancement of the emotional audiovisual integration was based on the cognitive processing of emotional information, and the temporal discrimination inhibited the emotional audiovisual integration. Either the pre-preparation effect of cross-sensory matching or emotional integration promoted the processing of visual and auditory information respectively and depended on the different neural circuits under visual- or auditory-leading independently. At last, the advantage of audio-visual integration showed that the cross-sensory and emotional pre-preparation effect was mediated by the tasks, demonstrating a separation between them. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Age-related Differences in Emotional Conflict Control between Adolescents and Adults: A Behavioral and ERP Study lin -zhang Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (2): 307-319.   Abstract （869）      PDF（pc） （1190KB）（824）       Knowledge map    Save Described as a "stormy period", adolescents may have a greater need for emotional inhibition and control than younger children and older adults. The ability of emotion control is associated with risk-taking behavior, abnormal psychological and behavioral development, and is crucial for adolescents. Previous researches suggested that there may be an undifferentiated and inefficient manner in which adolescents recruited the process of cognitive control and conflict detection. Thus, emotional information processing and emotional control during this special and critical period must be better understood. The first objective of the present study was to investigate differences in emotional conflict control between adolescents and adults. The event-related potential (ERP) was used to examine the differences in emotional conflict control between adolescents and adults. The second objective was to examine individual performance in the face-judging task and word-judging task. 31 early adolescents (12 females; Mage=12.66 years old) and 33 adults (17 females; Mage =20.15 years old) completed the face-word Stroop task. In this task, emotional words were overlaid on the emotional faces to generate congruent conditions (CC) and incongruent conditions (IC), and participants were asked to judge the valence of faces (face-judging task) or words (word-judging task). The participants' electroencephalography (EEG) signals were recorded during the whole task. Age differences in behavioral performance and ERP components related to emotional information processing between the two groups were analyzed. The results showed that: (1) Stroop effect was found in adolescents in the face-judging task (the response time was shorter in the congruent conditions than in the incongruent conditions), but for adults, the Stroop effect was found in both face and word judging task; (2) In adolescents, the N450 amplitude induced by incongruent conditions was significantly larger than that induced by congruent conditions; (3) The Stroop effect of N450 only appeared in the word judging task, while the Stroop effect of SP only appeared in the face judging task. The behavioral results might because of the worse conflict detection and resolution of adolescents, and the effort (RT) expended for the congruent stimuli is equivalent to that for the incongruent stimuli. The results of N450 might indicate that adolescents devote more cognitive and neural resources than adults to detecting conflict. These results provide neurological evidence that adolescents are less able to deal with emotional conflict than adults, which may be related to the immaturity of the prefrontal cortex associated with emotional control. Moreover, emotional conflict control is composed of conflict detection and conflict resolution, and  the accumulation of cognitive and neural resources in the former process may affect the latter process. Both the behavioral and neural results show that adolescents seemed to be less capable of emotional conflict control because of the immaturity of prefrontal regions. However, factors such as participants' age-related reading experience, selection and independent assessment of face stimulus materials, and control for the congruent of word and face stimuli should all be taken into account. Future research could consider conflict control of positive emotions as a study object, and examine comparative characteristics over a larger age range. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Effect of Daily rhythm on Cognitive Functions Peng Yudi, Xie Tian, Ma Ning Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (2): 282-290.   Abstract （920）      PDF（pc） （764KB）（819）       Knowledge map    Save Besides the physiological state, circadian variations have also been found in subjective feelings and neurobehavioral functions crucial for the execution of our daily tasks. However, few studies investigated the effect of daily rhythm based on Chinese native groups, and whether there is a discrepancy in the daily fluctuations of different cognitive functions remains unknown. To reveal effect of daily rhythms on performance in Chinese individuals comprehensively, the present study measured the changes of physiological state (body temperature, cardiac activity and arterial pressure), subjective feelings (self-report sleepiness) and objective performances (vigilance, inhibition control, working memory) in Chinese adults every two hours during a day (9:00-21:00) under laboratory control. To be specific, a single factor (time of day: 9:00,11:00.13:00,15:00,17:00,21:00) within-subject design was employed in the current study, and a total of 27 healthy young adults (11 males, 16 females) were selected as our subjects according to rigorous criteria. At each time point, we firstly used KSS and a seven-point Likert Scale to measure the participants’ subjective sleepiness and mood, respectively. Then, participants were tested on a psychomotor vigilance task, a go/no go task and two working memory tasks under different cognitive loads (one-back and two-back) sequentially. Additionally, participants’ oral temperature, heart rate and arterial pressure were measured as indicators of their physiological state every hour throughout the experiment. In general, the results revealed that participants were at their highest level of cognitive performance in the morning (09:00–11:00), but there was a post-noon dip at 13:00–15:00, suggesting beneficial effect as a short nap on performance. Performance improves again during the evening (17:00–21:00), which is in line with previous research. Moreover, in this study, differences in daily variations have also been found not only between self-assessments and objective measurements but also in the performance of different neurobehavioral functions. Specifically, while the participants showed a stable performance of vigilance during daytime, there was an obvious fluctuation in their self-report sleepiness in the afternoon. At 15:00, subjective sleepiness reached its highest level in the daytime, whereas the objective performance of neurobehavioral functions (vigilance, inhibition control, and working memory) had improved. At 17:00, associated with diminished subjective sleepiness, vigilance and working memory performance were relatively optimal at that time, but the execution in the go/no go task decreased and reached its lowest level, reflecting that inhibition control is worst in the evening independent of other executive functions. Moreover, while the performance of inhibition control improved at 19:00, the performance of vigilance and working memory showed a post-dinner dip at the same time, suggesting a non-optimal time for study and examinations specific to Chinese individuals. Additionally, when the participants performed the working memory tasks under different memory loads, their performance also demonstrated different daily variations at 9:00-13:00. This discrepancy suggests that the impact of daily rhythms on the same neurobehavior function may vary under different cognitive loads and further research is needed to understanding the underlying neural mechanism. Taken together, the present study shows that daily rhythm modifies our subjective feelings and basic neurobehavior functions (attention, inhibition control and working memory) differently, which may explain oscillations in the performance of different tasks during the day. The findings provide valuable insights into planning daily schedules, optimizing working arrangements, and ensuring safety based on human rhythm, providing preliminary evidence for illuminating the relationship between daily rhythms and behavioral performance in the future. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Network of Symptoms for Internet Gaming Disorder, Anxiety, and Depression: Examining Gender Differences Wang Zihao, Yang Haibo Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (4): 999-1007.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.202304029 Abstract （772）      PDF（pc） （1972KB）（809）       Knowledge map    Save It is known that college students' Internet Gaming Disorder is closely related to their anxiety and depression. Previous studies showed that Internet Gaming Disorder has six symptoms, and anxiety and depression also have seven symptoms. However, it is not clear whether these symptoms are related to each other, and whether gender may impact the above relations. This study uses a self-reported questionnaire to investigate the relations among Internet Gaming Disorder, anxiety, and depression in college students. In the form of the Internet, 916 college students (47.16%males; Mage=19.57 years old, SD = 1.07 years old) were recruited from four universities in Henan, Shandong, Tianjin, and Guangdong provinces. The instruments were the Chinese version of the 7-item game addiction scale (GAS) and the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-21). Participants reported their level of Internet Gaming Disorder, anxiety and depression. All measures were carried out anonymously and approved by school administrators. Data were analyzed in SPSS 21.0, Mplus 8.3, and JASP 0.14.1.0. The Latent class analysis was used to identify the risk groups of Internet Gaming Disorder, and the network analysis was used to explore the relations among symptoms. We found that there is a significant positive correlation between Internet Gaming Disorder, anxiety, depression, and there is a complex symptom relationship. In the symptom network of Internet Gaming Disorder, the core symptom of addiction behavior is salience, and the correlation between salience and tolerance is the strongest. In the comparison of different genders, we found that the core symptom of male students was mood modification, and the correlation between salience and tolerance was the strongest, while that of females was salience, and the correlation between salience and withdrawal was the strongest. In the symptomatic comorbid network of Internet Gaming Disorder, anxiety and depression, the core symptom of both males and females is panic, and the correlation between salience and tolerance is the strongest. This study explored the relation between College Students' Internet Gaming Disorde, anxiety, depression, and suggested the important role of salience and panic in these three mental disorders. These findings expand our understanding of the relations among Internet Gaming Disorder, anxiety, depression. Intervention on salience and panic may help to treat Internet Gaming Disorder, anxiety and depression. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Impairment of Prospective Memory by Alcohol Use: Antecedents and Mechanisms Xin Cong, Wang Haoyuan, Zhang Xinyu, Lu Dongfeng Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 267-273.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240202 Abstract （684）      PDF（pc） （337KB）（799）       Knowledge map    Save Prospective memory refers to the ability to remember to perform a delayed intention at an appropriate time or situation in the future, such as remembering to return a book to the library tomorrow morning or to take a daily medication. Memory failures that occur in the future generate more problems in daily life than memory failures that occur in the past. It has been found that 50~70 percent of real-life memory failures can be attributed to failures in prospective memory. The completion of most activities in daily life is closely related to prospective memory. Previous studies have typically investigated prospective memory using a dual-task paradigm, which included both prospective memory and ongoing tasks. Alcohol is one of the most widely used drugs and has been shown to play a complicated role in mental health and society. The association between alcohol use and cognitive function has drawn attention, and the adverse effects of alcohol use on cognitive function are well-documented. Alcohol use can damage the brain structure and cognitive function, and reduce the individual’s prospective memory performance. More generally, the study of prospective memory failures under alcohol is important to health behavior since many interventions targeted at non-dependent drinkers rely, to some extent, on prospective memory. The relation between alcohol use and prospective memory is influenced by many factors, including alcohol use patterns and doses, other substance abuse, differences in research measures, and types of prospective memory. Successful completion of prospective memory relies on the coordinated functioning of the subcomponents of executive function (working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility). Individuals firstly encode and store prospective memory intentions. When prospective memory cues appear, individuals need to retrieve prospective memory intentions, inhibit the ongoing task, remember the task rules and the responses, and flexibly switch from the ongoing task to the prospective memory task. The cognitive mechanisms through which alcohol use affects prospective memory are mainly related to executive function and attentional systems. In terms of neurological mechanisms, where alcohol use affects prospective memory involves the prefrontal and parieto-occipital cortex, the limbic system (hippocampus, anterior cingulate gyrus, and superior colliculus), cerebral cortical, and medullary substance. A systematic analysis of the factors influencing the relation between alcohol use and prospective memory and a summary of the mechanisms through which alcohol use affects prospective memory is of great value. It may inform interventions efforts that aim to improve the performance of prospective memory in clinical samples of alcohol use in the future. Future research can investigate the effects of alcohol use on prospective memory components by experimental isolation and the separation of prospective memory processing phases in combination with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) brain imaging techniques to understand the specific mechanisms of alcohol use on different prospective memory processing phases. In addition, future research should focus on the differences and improvements in research methods and on factors that improve prospective memory in clinical samples of alcohol use. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Females' Preference and Self-Distancing for High Calorie Food after Ego Depletion Wang Caiyu, Yu Qiuting Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (3): 712-718.   Abstract （598）      PDF（pc） （961KB）（748）       Knowledge map    Save Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Relationship between College Students’ Cultural Orientations and Self-objectification: The Mediating Role of Overt Narcissism Fan Linlin, Chen Hong, Liu Xinyuan Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (3): 619-626.   Abstract （829）      PDF（pc） （791KB）（740）       Knowledge map    Save According to the objectification theory, frequent encounters with sexual objectification will coax people into internalizing a third-party self-perspective and observing themselves through a sexually objectifying lens, a process termed as self-objectification. Previous studies reported that a high level of self-objectification would be detrimental to individuals' physical and mental health, so it is important to explore what factors contribute to the development of self-objectification. At the individual level, cultural orientation is the way in which individuals view the relationship between themselves and the external world, and it includes four types: vertical individualism, vertical collectivism, horizontal individualism and horizontal collectivism. Up to now, little research has explored how cultural orientation at the individual level affects self-objectification, and the results of cross-cultural research on self-objectification are also controversial. Overt narcissism is a personality trait, and previous studies suggested that culture may play an important role in shaping overt narcissism. In addition, overt narcissism affects individuals' body awareness. Several studies showed that overt narcissists think their bodies are attractive and they often have a higher level of self-objectification. In conclusion, first of all, there are controversies in previous cross-cultural studies on the relationship between cultural orientation and self-objectification. Secondly, few researchers have explored the role of overt narcissism in the relationship between cultural orientation and self-objectification. In addition, most studies exploring the influence factors of self-objectification included only female participants, so the relationship between cultural orientation and self-objectification in male groups remains unclear. Herein, this study aims to investigate the relationship between cultural orientation and individual’s self-objectification among Chinese college students, and the mediating role of overt narcissism. In addition, this study further discussed whether the mediation model is consistent across genders. Participants included 1720 college students (556 males and 1164 females) from a certain university. Three questionnaires were used in this study: Narcissistic Personality Inventory, Individualism and Collectivism Scale, and Self-Objectification Questionnaire. These scales had good reliability and validity. All data was analyzed by the software of SPSS 21.0 and Amos 22.0. The results indicated that: (1) Vertical individualism was positively correlated with self-objectification, while vertical collectivism, horizontal individualism and horizontal collectivism were negatively correlated with self-objectification. (2) The mediating effect of overt narcissism was not significant in the relationship between horizontal cultural orientation and self-objectification, while horizontal individualism and collectivism only had a direct effect on self-objectification. Vertical individualism and collectivism can not only significantly predict self-objectification, but also affect self-objectification through the mediating role of overt narcissism. (3) There are significant gender differences in vertical dimension cultural orientation, overt narcissism and self-objectification: Male participants scored significantly higher than female participants on vertical individualism, vertical collectivism and overt narcissism, while female participants scored significantly higher than male participants on self-objectification. The mediating models between vertical cultural orientation and self-objectification have measurement equivalence between genders. These results suggest that self-objectification is affected not only by external social and cultural environments, but also by cultural orientation at the individual level and overt narcissism. This means that individual characteristics also play an important role in the formation and development of self-objectification. Concern for collective goals and interests and concern for building harmonious group relations are associated with lower self-objectification. Overemphasis on the uniqueness of the self and the maintenance of the unique self by means of competition and comparison with others are associated with higher self-objectification. Therefore, from the perspective of constructing the individual-collective relationship, researchers can reduce the level of self-objectification by encouraging individuals to devote themselves to the collective goal in future interventions. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Analyses of Multilevel Moderated Mediation Model Jie Fang Zhong-Lin WEN Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (1): 221-229.   Abstract （785）      PDF（pc） （1206KB）（739）       Knowledge map    Save In recent years, multilevel mediation and multilevel moderation have been frequently used in social sciences, respectively. However, if they are integrated together, there are totally 12 kinds of multilevel moderated mediation models: 2 (multilevel mediation type) ×2 (level of moderator) ×3 (moderated mediation path). First, there are two types of multilevel mediation when two-level data is involved. One type is 1-1-1 multilevel mediation in which all variables are measured at Level 1, and the model includes between-cluster and within-cluster mediating effects. The other type has at least one variable at Level 2 (e.g., 2-1-1 multilevel mediation), and the model includes between-cluster mediating effect only. Second, there are two types of moderators. One is the moderator at Level 1, and the other is the moderator at Level 2. Third, there are three types of moderated paths: the first-stage (i.e., independent variable→mediator), the second-stage (i.e., mediator→dependent variable) and the dual-stage, which includes the paths of the two stages. All of the above-mentioned multilevel moderated mediation models are briefed in this paper, so that empirical researchers could know which kind of multilevel moderated mediation model meets their need and how to analyze it. It is worth noting that all predict variables of Level 1 are centered at the cluster mean, and then observed cluster mean is used as a Level-2 predictor. In this way, the effect of the predict variable of Level 1 can be divided into within-cluster and between-cluster effects. However, using observed cluster means as the proxy of the true cluster mean might result in a bias of mediating effect, and a multilevel structural equation model (MSEM) is more precise. In MSEM, a variable measured at Level 1 is orthogonally decomposed into a Level-1 latent variable and a Level-2 latent variable. There are four methods with regard to modeling moderated mediation in MSEM: the orthogonal partition (OP) method，random coefficient prediction (RCP) method，latent moderated structural (LMS) equations method, and Bayesian plausible values (BPV) method. The core issue of these four methods is how to deal with the latent interaction term. In the OP method, the interaction term is manually calculated. In the RCP method, the random slope at Level 1 is considered a latent variable at Level 2, and the latent variable is used as an outcome variable to test the interaction effect. In the LMS method, the joint distribution of the indicators is approximated by a finite mixture distribution, and the expectation maximization algorithm is applied to maximization of the log-likelihood function of this distribution, which results in maximum likelihood interaction estimates. In BPV method, the key to this estimation is that it allows generating a Bayesian analog of factor scores for latent variables by sampling from their posterior distribution some number of times. When the sample size is large enough (i.e., the number of groups is over 200 and the group size is over 30), LMS method is recommended to analyze the multilevel moderated mediation; otherwise, Bayesian plausible values method is preferred. An empirical example is employed to demonstrate how to conduct multilevel moderated mediation analysis with multilevel models and BPV method by Mplus. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）