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Temporal integration effects in facial expression recognition in different temporal duration condition Ben-You CHEN 2012, 35(4): 770-777.  Abstract ( )   Temporal integration is the process of perception processing, which the successively separated stimuli are combined into a significant representation. It is a complicated process, which is known to be influenced by such multiple factors as the temporal structure and stimulus components. Although this process has been explored in inter-stimulus interval in face perception, little is known about temporal integration effect in facial expression recognition, more importantly, there has been no relevant evidence demonstrating that stimulus duration and stimulus category can affect the temporal integration of facial expression. In the present study, the part-whole judgment task was used to examine the influencing factors of temporal integration in facial expression. In two experiments, each of three whole facial expression pictures was segmented into three parts, and each including a salient facial feature: eye, nose or mouth. These parts were presented sequentially to the participants by some interval or presentation duration, with a fixed sequence: eye part first, nose followed and mouth last. Following the last part, a mask which eliminated effects of afterimages or other types of visual persistence was displayed. Then participants were asked to judge the category of facial expression, responding by pressing one of three number keys: “1”, “2” and “3”, corresponding to anger, happy and sad. In experiment 1, each part was presented for 17ms, with five intervals of 50, 100, 200, 600, 900ms between each part in part-face condition, and a whole face as a baseline condition was presented for 50ms. Three factors were manipulated: inter-stimulus interval (50, 100,200,600,900ms), facial expression category (anger, happy and sad), and presentation orientation (upright vs. inverted). 72 participants were divided into six groups, and each group was randomly assigned to each of the six conditions to be tested individually. Each participant was asked to complete all possible combinations of the different levels of the facial expression category and presentation orientation. In experiment 2, each participant completed the same task. In addition to the 2 factors used in experiment 1, the third factor was changed as each part was presented for duration of 14, 50, 100, 200ms with the part interval of 50ms, and as the baseline condition was presented for 17ms. The results showed that inversion effects were found at short intervals (50～200ms) and short presentation duration (14～100ms) in part-face expression condition. And the effects were substantially reduced at long intervals (600～900ms) and long presentation duration (200ms). These demonstrated that participants could store temporally separated facial expression in a short-term visual buffer and integrated them into a single, unified facial expression. Furthermore, the results also showed that the temporal integration performance of the facial expression existed significant difference in different facial expression category. Also, happy expression recognition was easier than other expressions. All the results suggested that the temporal integration of the facial expression was influenced by multiple factors, including temporal structure, such as inter-stimulus interval, stimulus presentation duration, and stimulus feature. It meant that both iconic memory and long-term memory were possibly cognitive processing system involved in temporal integration of the facial expression. Key words facial expression, temporal integration, configural processing, memory. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Role of Background Nature in Faces Searching and Processing of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Aged 7- 10 2012, 35(4): 778-785.  Abstract ( )   One of the core issues in Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is problematic social interaction (Geschwind, 2009). Faces may be the most ‘‘social” of visual stimuli. From faces, and especially from eyes, humans are prone to extract social information like emotional disposition or communicative intent during conversation with others (de Wit, Falck-Ytter, & von Hofsten, 2008). Detecting a face within the scene is a crucial step in attending to the information portrayed by that face, such as communicative facial signals, so the face capture becomes particularly important (Riby & Hancock, 2008b). To explore the role of background nature in the faces searching and processing with ASD, two experiments were involved in current research that required 14 ASD children and 20 typically developing individuals, aged 7-10, to look at a range of pictures whilst having their gaze behavior monitored. In Experiment 1, a 2 (Participant: ASD vs. TD) × 2 (Embedded object: face vs. earth) mixed design was employed. The semantic inconsistency involve scenes with embedded faces or earth images. In Experiment 2, a 2 (Participant: ASD vs. TD) × 3 (Face: human face, dog’s face, back of head) mixed design was employed. The task involve scrambled pictures of a person or a dog with meaningless background. The results showed that there were no facilitation of semantic conspicuity background in face searching of ASD children. They consistently taken significantly longer time to locate at the face than those in the control group; and they took less time to search face than the inanimate object. There were no interference of meaningless scrambled background on face searching of ASD children, but prolong that of TD. Cross the two experiments, once the people’s faces were looked, children with ASD spent less time on the nose and mouth than typically developing group, but the fixation duration on eyes did not differ between the two groups. It is suggested that the face searching and processing of the ASD children were no effected by the background nature; the ASD children made a significantly less visual attention on face than individuals without autism, but their face searching and processing patterns are similar to the typically group. Related Articles | Metrics

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Attentional bias for word learning? ---Mandarin-speaking Infants' Discrimination of Persons, Actions, and Objects 2012, 35(4): 786-792.  Abstract ( )   Abstract Word learning requires establishing a mapping between words and concepts. Yet even before this mapping process, children need to attend to and identify conceptual units from perceptual inputs. From an associative perspective, attention is the initial step of early word learning, and differences in attentional patterns could play a role in language acquisition and development. English learners typically show vocabularies that are dominated by nouns, while studies reveal that verbs are acquired early and in large quantities by Mandarin Chinese learners. However, little research has examined whether English and Mandarin learners’ early comprehension and production of nouns and verbs could be attributed to attentional patterns. Thus, of interest for the present study is whether we will find fundamental differences in attentional patterns to complex scenes across developmental spans. In particular, we are interested in how the process of word learning may interact with attention among children who have not yet begun this process (i.e. 6 month olds) vs. children who are in the middle of an explosive phase of early vocabulary development (i.e. 18 month olds). In this study, we explore Mandarin-learning infants’ abilities to discriminate between Persons, Actions, and Objects in both silent and word-learning environments. 31 6-8 month and 48 17-19 month Mandarin-speaking infants were selected. Infants were randomly assigned to a habituation scene, in which a videotaped event of a young woman performing a novel action on a novel object was presented to infants in a habituation paradigm. These scenes were repeated over and over again until infants got bored. Once they were bored, infants were presented with four test trials, in which none (control trial) or one of the three elements changed (Person Change, Action Change, Object Change) with the other two held consistent with the habituation. Infants’ looking time was calculated on-line by a live experimenter who was blind to the stimuli appearing on the screen and coded the infant’s eye movement through a curtain hole. There was a main effect of test type (control, person change, action change, object change). The prediction of developmental differences in infants’ discrimination of the elements was also verified.These results revealed that 6-8 month olds allocated more attention to action change than control. In contrast, the 17-19 month olds paid more attention on all change trials than control. These studies aim to further investigate the cognitive mechanism underlying word-to-world mapping Some researchers have provided the evidence that Mandarin-speaking infants only learned word-action associations but not word-object associations. Not only could the present study help clarify and complement the previous findings, it contributes to the theoretical framework of word learning as a development process manifested at multiple levels. The current studies also provided the evidence in both the developmental changes in infants’ attentional patterns. Overall, 6-8 month olds could discriminate different actions, paying more attention to action change than control, but not different objects. In contrast, for the 17-19 month olds, they paid more attention on all change trials than control. Related Articles | Metrics

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Effect of self-esteem on attentional bias for emotional faces 2012, 35(4): 793-798.  Abstract ( )   Previous findings are generally consistent with the notion that low self-esteem participants tend to show difficulty in disengaging their attention from negative stimuli. However, the extant data regarding the disengage component of attention in relation to low self-esteem is scarce. The main object of the present study was to further investigate the time course of attention deployment to emotional stimuli in low self-esteem using event related potentials technology. In experiment 1, 129 undergraduates participated in the task and pairs of neutral, happy or sad facial expression were used as material. The results showed that there were no attentional bias between high self-esteem and low self-esteem participants. 15 high self-esteem and 15 low self-esteem participants selected from experiments 1 participated in experiment 2 and pairs of neutral, happy or angry facial expression were used as material. Behavioral results revealed no significant main or interaction effects involving self-esteem or target. Instead, low self-esteem participants responded faster than high self-esteem participants. Electrophysiology data showed that low self-esteem showed increased P1 amplitudes to valid trials versus invalid trials and had larger N2pc amplitude in the invalid trials versus in the valid trials. It was cautiously speculated that low self-esteem was more likely to be attracted by emotional stimuli than by neutral stimuli, in other words. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Controlability of the Implicit of IAT Chengzhi FENG 2012, 35(4): 799-805.  Abstract ( )   The main purpose of this study examined whether the IAT could control social desirability effectively. Four experiments were conducted to investigate the fake-ability of the IAT, durability of the faking, the prerequisite of the faking and the transfer of the IAT experience. We found (1) The participants could cover up their true implicit attitudes through some kinds of response strategy ,which made the individual implicit attitude and collective implicit attitude distorted. The typical strategy of faking was to balance the compatible and noncompatible combinations by deliberately going slowly in compatible condition and responding rapidly for the noncompatible condition. (2) The faking of IAT probably must be based on subjects’ prior IAT experience. And the IAT experience needn’t belong to the same psychological or social domain. It would be helpful to fake the IAT successfully if the subjects’ had known well the mechanism of IAT. (3) It seemed that the successful faking of IAT could only last for a given period of time. The nearer was the IAT experience, the higher was the possibility of successful faking. In summary, the IAT is not immune to social desirability. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Neural Correlates Of Expectancy Deviation And Punishment and Reward: An EPRs study 2012, 35(4): 806-810.  Abstract ( )   A number of studies have recently used EPRs to investigate the mechanisms underlying error processing. The expectancy deviation happens when the external feedback is different from the internal expectancy. FRN is supposed to be the representative of expectancy deviation. While the Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory holds that FRN is sensitive to the aversive signal; and P3 to appetitive signal. Other studies have proposed that FRN is only mediated by feedback value. This paper is trying to look into the confirm the expectancy deviation’s neural representative and how is the FRN effect, and try to find more about the meaning of these related components, by setting comparison conditions to test the performance. Method: Using ERPs technique, two experiments, Exp has two within subject factors: stimulus type (reward/punishment) and expectation-frustration(Y/N). Result: We found that punishment produce higher FRN, reward produce higher P3; high BIS individuals produce higher FRN when facing punishment signals; Expectation frustration with higher FRN; under social comparison, higher FRN with advantage and disadvantage when compared with equality condition.Conclusion: The correlation between BIS and FRN is confirmed; FRN is both confirmed to be the response of the stimulus value and the representative of expectancy-deviation; P3 may be the neural correlation with reward/equality; The social comparison has main effects that advantage and disadvantage condition with higher FRN and N450-550, compared to equality condition. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Time-Course of Metaphor Comprehension in Chinese：An Event-Related Potentials Study 2012, 35(4): 811-816.  Abstract ( )   Abstract□□Are metaphoric and literal meanings processing concurrently or else, we should first try to access the literal meaning and only after failing we try to find a metaphorical one in metaphor comprehension？Researchers then proposed two hypotheses: three-stage model and parallel hypotheses. The present paper verified the above assumption experimentally. We used Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) to study the process of metaphor comprehension and focused on the time-course difference between the comprehension of metaphorical sentences and literal ones. 31 participants were college students, with a mean age of 22.21. They were asked to perform a semantic judgment task that deciding whether the sentence they saw in the screen of computer conveyed a meaningful expression or not. E-prime software was used to compile the experimental program. The EEG data was recorded by a Neuroscan 64 Channels System. ERPs data revealed that the waveforms and scalp distributions of ERPs which was evoked by literal sentences and metaphoric ones were in agreement (see Figure 1 and Figure 2). The terminal words of error sentences and novel metaphors elicited the most negative N400 amplitudes, followed by familiar metaphors, with literal sentences smallest. The effect of sentence type was significant, F(2,55)=43.40, p<0.001. The main effect of sentence type in N200 was not significant, F(3,60)=2.28, p>0.05. As the N400 reflects the processing mechanism in comprehension and the terminal words of metaphors elicited the same waveform and scalp distribution of N400 with the terminal words of literal sentences. We conclude that metaphors share the same processing mechanism with literal ones. That is the results support the parallel hypothesis and fall to support three-stage model. But the amplitude differences that the amplitude of metaphor is more positive than error sentences and more negative than literal ones suggests cognitive resources that cost in metaphoric comprehension are much more than in literal ones. There was no significant difference between four type sentences in N200 reveal that N200 reflects a corresponding process. We argued that the process of metaphor and literal sentences share the same mechanism, but the process of metaphor needs more cognitive resource. The results support the parallel hypothesis of metaphor comprehension. Related Articles | Metrics

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A Left-to-right Orientation of The Mental Timeline in Chinese Context Yan-Yan GU ZHANG ZhiJie 2012, 35(4): 817-822.  Abstract ( )   Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of the Relational Complexity upon Selective Attention during the Indirect Learning of Relational Category 2012, 35(4): 823-828.  Abstract ( )   Relational category means that identification of category is determined by a common relation structure. People are more inclined to use indirect means to learn category knowledge in daily life, such as referential communication. The indirect category learning means that learners interact with their objects and learn category knowledge indirectly.this study designed three experimental tasks (functional prediction task, liberal classification task and dimensions selection task) to explore the influence of the relational complexity upon selective attention during the indirect learning of relational category. The study designed three kinds of experimental materials.The total participants are 216 undergraduate students and they are evenly divided into male and female. They are randomly assigned to the group of indirect category learning of individual functional prediction(72 persons) and the group of indirect category learning relation to referential communication (144 persons).The three experimental tasks were carried out continuously, and the participants involving in functional relation interpretation under the two conditions relating to liberal classification task performed dimensional selection task. Dimensional selection task analyses in a MANOVA . The present study indicated that among dimensions selection tasks of three relational categories the relativity of dimensional number under the referential condition is significantly higher than that under individual condition. With the increasing relational complexity of relational category learning material, there is no significant difference among the results of dimensional selection. The study shows that the influence of the relational complexity upon selective attention during the indirect learning of relational category mainly reflected in the directivity of selective attention and did not reflect in the the concerntration of selective attention (the inhibition of non-relative dimension), the influence of the relational complexity upon overall selective attention was not significant. The participants’ overall level of selective attention under the referential condition was strikingly significantly higher than that under the individual condition, and was not influenced by the relational complexity, which suggest that the influence mainly reflected in the directivity of selective attention and did not reflect in the the concerntration of selective attention. Related Articles | Metrics

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The neural basis of “fast-same” effect in same-different judgment:An event-related potential study 2012, 35(4): 829-835.  Abstract ( )   The spatiotemporal analysis of brain activation during the execution of same-different judgments [including the different color stimulus pair (DC), the different shape stimulus pair (DS) and the same stimulus pair (Same)] was performed in 12 normal young adult subjects using high-density event-related brain potentials (ERPs). We want to reveal the neural basis of “same” and “different” judgments. We can judge which is correct between the dual-process model and single-process model that previous experiments want to prove with behavioral research. The behavioral data showed that the same-different judgments yielded a robust fast-same effect as indexed by longer RT for DC and DS than Same. Scalp ERP analysis revealed the neurophysiological substrate of the fast-same effect: a more negative N2 component in DC and DS as compared to Same was found between 280 and 320 ms post-stimulus over midline fronto-central scalp regions. Following that period, DC and DS elicited a more negative P3 component than Same did about 450 ms after onset of the stimuli which might reflect the comparison and recognition of the partial character of the stimulus (the slow processing machine), and the latency of P3 was much shorter for Same than for DC and DS which was consistent with the behavioral data. Dipole source analysis (BESA software) of the original waveforms of DC and DS indicated that a generator of N2 mainly localized in the superior/anterior frontal cortex contributed to this effect, possibly in relation to early monitoring mismatch stimulus pairs. However, activation of the precuneus possibly resulted in N2 effect under Same condition, which was relative to holistic comparison (identify reporter). The results indicated that there might be different neural basis of “same” and “different” judgments. Our data support the dual-process model, and we think that IR and the slow processing machine work in order. Related Articles | Metrics

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Characters’ Font Size Influence on the Pattern of Eye Movements in Chinese Reading 2012, 35(4): 836-841.  Abstract ( )   It is well known that Chinese texts consist of characters which take the same amount of horizontal extent, and there are no explicit boundaries between the words. Yang and McConkie (2004) proposed that Chinese readers developed oculomotor strategies that did not involve words. However, words were most important for alphabetic scripts reading (O’Regan & Jacobs, 1992). And recently a number of researches have confirmed that vocabulary is basic element in the information processing of Chinese reading and there were preferred viewing location effect and optimal fixation position effect on Chinese word (Bai, et. al., 2008; Shen, et. al., 2010; Rayner, et. al., 2007; Yan, et. al., 2010). It is apparent that both word and character were the unit for saccade targeting. But scholars at home and abroad have never investigated which one was the primal important in saccade targeting. So this study examined the influence of characters’ font size and word procession on saccade targeting and fixation duration. The research used nested within subjects design by 4 (presentation: small- small, small-large, large-small, large-large) × 2 (text content: sentence & a serial of ※). 40 framework sentences and 40“※”strings were sequentially divided into four groups, and then 4 presentation ways were arranged according to the Latin square type. “※”strings and sentences controlled were equal in amount. Participants were asked to read sentences as normal, and skim through the “※” strings from right to left as normal reading. The results show that: (1) the pattern of eye movement when they read text was similar to those when they scan the “※” string which shared same presentation mode as the sentences; (2) The sentence of the vary in size of characters on its both sides had seriously affected the readers’ reading efficiency; (3) The probability of refixation on the larger characters appeared was greater than the smaller characters, and which was reverse for the index of skip probability. Anyhow, the results showed that both the vision presentation ways and the difficulty of lexical processing had affected participants’ eye movement, and that characters were also the basic unit for saccade targeting. Related Articles | Metrics

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The neural basis of spatial reasoning: An event-related potential study 2012, 35(4): 842-847.  Abstract ( )   The purpose of the present study was to disentangle the neurocognitive subprocesses underlying different spatial reasoning problems with event-related potentials (ERP) technique. Fourteen healthy Chinese young students (6 males and 8 females, mean age 25.2±2.2 years) without history of neurological disorders or chronic disease participated in this study. There were four kinds of three-term spatial reasoning task and one kind of memory task (baseline, BS). The term orders are AB-CB (A refers to the end term of the first premise, and C refers to the end term of the second premise) in all tasks. All stimuli were generated with E-prime 1.0 software and displayed in black with a white background on a computer screen. EEG was recorded from the scalp through 32 non-polarizable Ag/AgCl sintered electrodes in pre-configured caps, with a 500 Hz sampling rate using the Neuroscan EEG system. The ERP waveforms were time-locked to the onset of premise 2. Mean amplitudes in each time window were analyzed using three-way repeated-measures analyses of variance. The behavioral results indicated that memory task (BS) were easier than reasoning tasks (AO and AT-V) except for no valid multi-model problems (AT-NV). But both multi-model reasoning tasks were easier than one-model reasoning task. ERP data showed that reasoning tasks elicited more positive amplitudes than baseline task from 200ms to 900ms.The content-based spatial reasoning elicited similar waveform to that of no-content spatial reasoning. One-model problem elicited different waveform with valid two-model problem. The latter elicited a more positive waveform than the former in the time window of 300-600ms. Valid two-model problems elicited different waveform with two model and no-valid problems in the time window of 200-600ms. In conclusion, the behavioral data show that the place of indeterminate premises and the difficulty of spatial problems affected the process of resolving uncertain spatial reasoning. ERP data suggest that spatial reasoning and memory might reflect different requirement of attention resources. Reasoning need integrate information of two premises, while memory only maintain premise in working memory. When confronted with two-model problem, people process the stimulus and make a primary decision after 200ms, then construction of a single mental model with an annotation. Moreover, visual image do not affect spatial reasoning significantly. Related Articles | Metrics

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Web Page Color Preference of Young Observers Compared to Aged Observers Hong-Ting LI 2012, 35(4): 848-851.  Abstract ( )   Nowadays, more and more elderly people get information by surfing the internet. Previous studies have shown that color preference change with ageing. However, the majority of web pages are designed according to the color preference of the young adults ignoring the color preference of the elderly, though significant difference is existed. It is true, a lot of research has investigated the difference of the abstract color preference between two groups, and they find significant sex and age-related difference on color preference, but their results are too ambiguous to be taken into account directly in web page design for the elderly, partly because the abstract color preference is not the same as the specific color preference. As it is known, color preference is a psychological factor having a very important impact on the usability and the aesthetics of the web page. Objective: This paper aimed to investigate the web page`s specific color preference of the young and the old. One hundred and ninety-eight participants took part in the research .The participants who suffered from these illnesses such as Alzheimer ,Parkinson or diabetic retinopathy were excluded from the study. Methods: The paired-comparison method was employed in the research. Procedures: This research contained two experiments. The first experiment investigated the text and theme color preference of the young and the old, this part was an abstract color preference investigation. In theme color preference test, the stimulation materials were chosen from the 48 web-safe colors included in Mspaint program. At last, each group choose 6 colors they most preferred. When experiment started, the participants were asked to make paired-comparison between 6 colors that chosen before. In the text color preference test, 4 colors (red ,blue ,black, green)were chosen as the stimulation material. Experiment 1 described the order of the theme color and the text color after 42 times pair-comparison. Basing on the results of the experiment 1 ,18 web pages(combined by 6 theme . Related Articles | Metrics

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The Priming Effect of the Grammatical Structure in the Production of Chinese Idioms Jinqiao ZHANG 2012, 35(4): 852-856.  Abstract ( )   This research is an attempt to probe into the priming effect of the grammatical structure in the production of the four-character Chinese idiom. A model of improved instantaneous memory is adopted with 60 university students majoring in Chinese language as subjects. The results suggest that the whether or not there is a similarity in the morpheme structure between the priming idiom and the target idiom, the grammatical priming effect exists when their move structure are the same. The findings of this research primarily indicate that there also exists a process of grammatical production and selection in the relatively solidified-structured four-character Chinese idiom and that this process of grammatical production and selection stems mainly from the move structure of the Chinese idioms. The production of the grammatical structure is an abstract process. Related Articles | Metrics

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The effect of endogenous attentional orienting on stereopsis: An ERP study 2012, 35(4): 857-861.  Abstract ( )   Employing a behavioral paradigm combined with the ERP technique, the present research is aimed at exploring how endogenous orienting of visual attention influenced depth processing and how it was expressed in ERP components. Main conclusions are as follows: At both the short and the long SOA, the predictive central symbolic cue produced a facilitative effect on the subsequent discrimination task in the 3D condition, and the difference between the two treatments was not statistically significant. At the short SOA, both the classic and the cross-depth facilitative effect in stereoscopic space affected N1 wave of ERP early components, in which the valid-cue trials induced a larger N1 amplitude; while at the long SOA, the invalid-cue trials tended to induce a larger N1 amplitude. Related Articles | Metrics

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Psychological Mechanism Underlying Preference Reversals in Intertemporal Choice Hai-xian CHEN he 2012, 35(4): 862-867.  Abstract ( )   Preferences reverse between near choice and distant choice is normal in intertemporal choice. Affection, tine perception and varying decision weighting are three hypothesizes explaining preferences reverse in intertemporal choice. This study tests these hypothesizes by scaling affection strength, perceived time length, and decision weighting in decision making directly. The results indicate: (1) SS activates stronger affection in proximal choice but not in distant choice; (2) affection strength can predict proximal choice but not distant choice; (3) the difference of the strength of impulsive affection and length of time perception between proximal choice and distant choice can predict preferences reverses. The results support affection and time perception hypothesizes. Related Articles | Metrics

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Knowledge Effect on Blocking in Category Learning 2012, 35(4): 868-874.  Abstract ( )   Blocking is an interesting phenomenon in learning. When a cue can predict the outcome effectively, it will block learning of other cues. Some versions of the error-driven learning have been incorporated into most category learning models and suggested that features useful for categorizations would block learning of other features. According to error-driven views, no matter the category has a theme or not, features can be used to classify all exemplars perfectly would block learning of other features. In contrast, some researchers indicate that different from association learning, category learning is a high level cognitive processing and people would like to learn more features than classification. When there is a theme in category, the theme knowledge helps to strengthen the activation of features and more features are learned. Are there some cognitive mechanisms in category learning in addition to error-driven mechanism? In a blocking paradigm, the category learning mechanisms have been investigated in three experiments by testing the knowledge effect in category learning. In experiment 1, rote features were defined as defining features to investigate whether the theme knowledge affected category learning. No feature learning superiority has been found in the theme knowledge condition. One possibility was that the rote defining features made participants had difficulty in getting the theme knowledge. In experiment 2, defining features were changed to knowledge features and besides defining features some features had been learned. It indicated that the theme knowledge in the category helped to learn more features and blocking effect disappeared. Experiment 3 got the same results while the defining knowledge features had been fixed on the top of exemplar. When there was a theme in category, the disappearance of blocking effect in category learning indicated that category learning was not solely driven by error-reduction. The cognitive mechanism in category learning helped to make use of theme knowledge and learn more features. A primary conclusion can be made that there are both error-driven mechanism and cognitive mechanism in category learning. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Relation Between Flase Belief Understanding and the Using of Mental State Terms during Picture Talking for Preschoolers:A Short-Term Longitudinal Study 2012, 35(4): 875-881.  Abstract ( )   Abstract Numerous studies have show that children’s language ability is not only related to false-belief understanding, but also appeared to play an important role in the development of theory of mind (ToM). However, it remained unclear which aspect of language development contributes most to the development of ToM. Many researchers such as Moore et al. (1994) and de Matsui et al. (2006) argue that the mental state language of particular languages might be related to children’s theory of mind development. This study explored the relationship between preschoolers’ flase belief understanding and the using of mental state terms within a storytelling task. Using 101 children aged 3-5 in the kindergarten as subjects, the study adopted a short-term longitudinal design which was administered twice at three-month intervals, so that children’s mental state discourse at Times 1 and 2 could both be related to false belief assessed at Time2. This study was designed to examine children’s mental state discourse within a storytelling task, in which children were asked to generate responses to a series of photographs, and assess using a set of false belief tasks, including unexpected transfer, unexpected content and appearance-reality task. The results showed these two are very close to each other. Within Picture talking, preschoolers used fewer belief terms than desire terms and emotional terms, and vocabulary types of the cognitive terms were less, mainly ‘yao4’ and ‘xiang3’. Furthermore, only on the first test, control the general language ability and age, there was still a remarkable correlation beween children’ emotional terms , belief terms and false belief understanding in the same period, even later false belief understanding, but there wasn’t evident correlation between the false belief task performance at time1 and the mental state language at time2. The results of this short-term longitudinal study provide some support for the important role of verbal skills plays in the development of ToM, particularly the mental state language. Related Articles | Metrics

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The effect of parasocial interaction on young children’s learning from video 2012, 35(4): 882-888.  Abstract ( )   Employing representation understanding task and rule learning task to investigate the effect of parasocial interaction on 2-5 years old children’s learning from video, young children’s performances were compared among three conditions: social interaction live condition, parasocial interaction video condition and non-parasocial interaction video condition. Results from the representation understanding task indicated that a video deficit phenomenon occurred in 2 year old children’s learning from video; After age 2.5, especially for 3-4 years old children, the performance under parasocial interaction video condition was the same as under social interaction live condition，it implied that parasocial interaction enhanced young children’s participation, and effectively improved children's attention to the video information, thus it contributed to young children's use of video information to solve problems. Under the non-parasocial interaction video condition, the performance of 3 to 4 years old age groups not only did not rise, but declined compared to the performance of 2.5 years old age group, and the performance were significantly lower than the performance under parasocial interaction video condition. Children after 3 years of age, along with the development of self-awareness and self-esteem, their participation and learning might be inhibited under the non-parasocial interaction video condition. Results from the rule learning task indicated that for 2.5 years old age groups, performances were poor under all three conditions due to the limitation of children's cognitive development. For children aged 3 to 4 years old, their performances steadily increased under parasocial interactive video condition and social interaction live condition, and were significantly high compared with non-parasocial interaction video condition. It implied that children’s ability to understand the rules developed rapidly, and learning under parasocial interactive video condition were better than under non-parasocial interaction video condition. For children age 4.5 and above, performances under non-parasocial interactive video condition were greatly improved, because children’s ability of attention and initiative to learning developed rapidly. The prominent role of parasocial interaction in video learning therefore was reduced. Based on the results, the authors concluded that age from 2.5 to 4.5 is the best period for effective parasocial interactive video learning. The authors put forward a suggestion about producing video programs for 2 to 5 years old children that parasocial interaction cues should be considered appropriately in the programs. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Interactive cognition: the cognitive mechanism of tacit knowledge 2012, 35(4): 889-894.  Abstract ( )   Before the distributed cognitive theory and social constructivism proposed, the individual cognitive mechanisms were mainly concerned, especially for the individual explicit knowledge to study. After the distributed cognition theory proposed, people began to pay more attention to the mechanisms of the knowledge dissemination within the group or organization, but the theory still only explain the explicit knowledge dissemination and sharing mechanism. Tacit knowledge is another main form in the human knowledge treasure, furthermore, a more important knowledge form than the explicit knowledge，and it is the major source and base of knowledge innovation. How to explain the dissemination and sharing mechanisms of tacit knowledge and manage it effectively, especially within different individuals in the groups or organizations has always been a problem hanging in doubt, which has become a focus in the field of knowledge management. On the basis of the comprehensive analysis and summary of tacit knowledge, social constructivism and distributed cognitive theory, combined with enterprise knowledge management practices and a long-term research basis, the interactive cognitive theory was proposed for the revealing of cognitive mechanisms of the tacit knowledge. Interactive cognition means the mutual influence and interaction of the different knowledge bodies in cognitive process. Both knowledge dissemination forms of master train apprentice and Communities of Practice in the common practice of business management are the best examples to explain the cognitive mechanisms of the tacit knowledge cognitive mechanism. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The content analysis of violence in popular teenage animations 2012, 35(4): 895-900.  Abstract ( )   The violence in mass media has been a research focus of sociology and psychology. Many researchers paid more attention to the violence in movies and games, but neglected the violence in animations. This study examined the characteristics of violence that is perpetuating throughout popular teenage animations by content analysis method. In order to produce the representative sample, 596 middle school students were investigated by writing down the names of 10 preferable animations, and the top 3 animations were chosen from collected 98 animations based on frequency of nomination. Considering so many episodes in each animation, average 14 episodes from each animation were equidistantly selected as the research sample. After developing the contextual features coding schedule about the violence scene（mainly including the basic information of person involving in the violence, basic judgment about the cause and value of violence, relevant consequences of violence caused）, 3 postgraduate students who were familiar with these 3 animations were trained as the research coder. they spent 7 weeks，6 episodes per week，to finish the coding. Results showed that the content analysis reliabilities which include intercoder agreement and constant reliability were almost higher than 0.8, and these animations contained a large proportion of violent scenes. Further analyses surfaced other defining characteristics of violence in the animations that appealed to middle school students, namely 1) many of the perpetrators of violence were teenagers, students and heroes, and they were mostly male and attractive; 2)the causations of violence were mainly helpfulness, performance of official duties, and violence was always for the sake of justice and could be forgivable; 3) violent scenes were usually depicted in close-up and they usually were not bloody; 4) much of the violence was unrealistic and lacking in humor; 5) there were inadequate descriptions highlighting the suffering of victims and a lack of sympathy shown towards victims as well; nevertheless, perpetrators of violence were rarely punished in spite of the scale of bodily harm caused. Therefore, it was concluded that the characteristics of violence in popular teenage animations were attractive perpetrators; justified, unrealistic and humorless violence; glamorized violence scenes; and trivialized the physical aggression. Related Articles | Metrics

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Differences Between Helpful Hints and Unhelpful Hints During Incubation 2012, 35(4): 901-905.  Abstract ( )   Using Chinese logogriph material, Through simulation about the four stage model of insight problem solving created by wallas(1926), We explored how helpful hints and unhelpful hints influence the chinese logogriph problems solving. Result showed that: During incubation, helpful hints elicited a more positive ERP deflection(P300-400、P400-600、P600-800) than unhelpful hints in the time window from 300-400ms、400-600ms、600-800ms respectively After the onset of the stimuli. Maps of the P300-400、P400-600、P600-800 showed strong activity in the left prefrontal cortex. It is indicated that helpful hints show greater facilitation on the logogriphs solving than unhelpful hints. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Development of 2 - to 4 - year-old Children’s comprehensibility of Counterfactual Thinking under Motivational Conflict 2012, 35(4): 906-910.  Abstract ( )   ：Counterfactual thinking could be divided into additive, subtractive and substitutional counterfactuals according to the characters of antecedent. It also could be divided into upwards and downwards counterfactuals according to the characters of consequent. At present there was no coincident conclusion about at what point the children began to create counterfactual thinking. Harris et al and Gergely et al found children could conduct counterfactual reasoning at 2-3. However, Riggs indicated that children couldn’t conduct the counterfactual thinking at 3, and it also had difficulty at 4 years-old and 5 years-old. Zhang Kun discovered children of 3-year-old made mistake easily, and children of 4-year-old almost could accomplish the counterfactual reasoning. Chen Y.H. et al found all the children could conduct counterfactual reasoning from 3-5. Counterfactual thinking included comprehensibility and production, the two abilities produce at different stages. Comprehensibility was the antecedent of production. Children could understand didn’t mean they could cerate spontaneously. The general discussion about “When children could possess the ability of counterfactual reasoning” could create different perspectives. Therefore, this study investigated the development of 2- to 4- year-old children’s comprehensibility of counterfactual thinking under three kinds of motivational conflict which adopted storytelling method. The motivational conflict included double-approach conflict, double-avoidance conflict and approach-avoidance conflict. 76 2-to-4 year-old children were selected as participants. This study included three experiments and it adopted self-made stories which were familiar with children. After children listened to the stories, they answered the questions “yes” or “no” to indicated whether the questions were true or false. The first experiment examined the comprehensibility of antecedent counterfactuals, while the second one looks at their ability to comprehend different directions’ consequent counterfactuals. The result indicated: (1)The scores of 2-year-old children’s additive and subtractive counterfactuals were significantly higher than that of substitutional counterfactuals.(2)There was significant difference among three age groups in subtractive counterfactuals tasks.(3)Under approach-avoidance conflict condition, additive and subtractive counterfactuals were significantly higher than that of substitutional counterfactuals. (4)There was significant age difference in young children’s consequent counterfactual comprehension tasks. Related Articles | Metrics

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Child neglect and peer acceptance:the mediating effect of negative behavior LIU AiShu 2012, 35(4): 911-915.  Abstract ( )   Child neglect is a worldwide problem. As the progress of the social civilization, it gradually become a hot issue in the field of international child research. Many foreign scholars have paid widespread attention to the field of child neglect. However, there are few special study domestically. Because of traditional opinions and cultural differences, we do not have a good understanding of child neglect. The research of child neglect has never got enough attention and concern in the field of psychology, research to the psychological consequences of it is less. Child neglect is a serious question. With the rapid development of economy and society in China, parents have lots of problems of their own to face and deal, they are unable even to fend for themselves with intense competition and mental pressure. It provides possibility under such circumstances for them to neglect their children more easily. According to the foreign reports, Neglect influence not only children’s physical development, but children’s socialization development as well.As for the research of the socialization, researchers concern about not only results of socialization but also its process. So the present study try to examine both negative consequences of child neglect and influence mechanism between child neglect and future development. As we know, social behavior and peer acceptance are two important role in children socialization development, this study will demonstrate the adverse influence to children with socialization process through discussing on the relationship among child neglect, social behavior and peer acceptance. Meanwhile, base on the relationship between social behaviors and peer acceptance, researchers inferred that, social behavior has mediating the effect of child neglect on peer acceptance. The results are helpful to make clear the current status of child neglect and direction of further research with the intention that both get the knowledge of and pay attention to it in order to intervention. Questionnaire（CPANS）method and sociometric nomination were applied to explore the relationship of child neglect with negative behavior (aggression, withdraw, victimization) and peer acceptance. 503 primary school students from grade 4-5 in three primary schools of Harbin were took part in this study. All data were processed by SPSS and AMOS, correlation analysis, structural equation model were used to analysis. The results showed that: Total of scale and emotional neglect, educational neglect were positively correlated with victimization(P< .05), physical/supervisory neglect were positively correlated with withdrawal behavior(P< .05). But aggressive behavior showed no significant correlation to the dimensions of scale(P> .05).Significantly negative correlation was found between child neglect and peer acceptance(P< .05), especially on educational neglect and physical/supervisory neglect. Results from SEM indicated that child neglect has impact on peer acceptance through 2 type mediator effect: neglect–victimization–peer acceptance, neglect–withdrawal behavior–peer acceptance. physical/supervisory neglect were positively predicted the extent of withdrawal behavior and physical/supervisory neglect were negatively predicted the peer acceptance. Through the mediating role of children’s negative behaviors, child neglect could make a negative role on children’s peer acceptance. Related Articles | Metrics

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The character and reason of Kinship Words of Jinuo Nationality Zhan-Ling CUI 2012, 35(4): 916-920.  Abstract ( )   The purpose of this paper was to probe the characteristic of conceptual structure of kinship words in Jinuo-middle-school-students’ mind, and to try to give the reasons for the structure. The subjects were 69 students (22 males and 47 famales) and all came from Jinuo middle school. The materials used were 62 kinship words from Zhang et al.’s (2004) study, including 10 core relative words, 20 In-laws, 18Uncle Cousins, 8 Second immediate relatives and 6 Foster relatives. Considering the characteristics of Jinuo nationality that it doesn’t have its own words, all words were presented randomly on a piece of paper in Chinese characters. The participants were asked to classify the 62 kinship words according to their own criteria in 30 minutes. The responses were analyzed using multi - dimensional scaling method. The results showed that about 32 percent of students sorted kinship terms into three categories. And the average classification category was 4.2. This was basically the same as the Han nationality students’ classification category. There were two dimensions in the conceptual structure of kinship words of Jinuo nationality，one was the intimate level of relative，and the other was considered as people／people who were looked after. There were both the same and difference between the conceptual structure of kinship words of Jinuo nationality and that of Han nationality. And in my opinion, these differences came from the Jinuo’s marriage system of Blood relationship, Malaya Relative system, and also with Jinuo in the language or languages characteristic and “direct transition” leapfrog development relevant. The main enlightenment to us for investigating kinship words concept structure is that while being about past traditional culture accumulation, should also pay attention to the social development of the cultural permeating and change. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Impact of Learners’ Direct Experience on Their Intention to Take Self-Regulated Learning: An Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior 2012, 35(4): 921-925.  Abstract ( )   Related Articles | Metrics

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A comparison of mother and teacher report of children’s prosocial behavior on the agreement and predictive effect 2012, 35(4): 926-931.  Abstract ( )   Prosocial behavior, that is the voluntary behavior intended to benefit another, has been widely studied in children since 1970s. Though many studies focused on the age trends and gender differences in children’s prosocial behavior, no consistent conclusions have been drawn. It is suggested that developmental changes, as well as gender differences, in prosocial behavior are complex and are influenced by methodological factors. Informant discrepancies in the assessment are one of such factors but are less studied empirically. Here, the objectives of the study were to investigate agreement between mothers’ and teachers’ rating on children’s prosocial behavior, and further compared the predictive effect of different informant’s assessment on children’s actual prosocial response observed in experimental context to give implication for the cross-informant’s discrepancies. Mothers (n=86) and teachers (n=8) assessed each child (n = 86; 3-to-5 years old) using the empathic and prosocial response subscale from the conscience measure developed by Kochanska et al. (1994). Meanwhile, children’s prosocial responses to strange adult’s distress in experimental context were videotaped and coded. Mother-teacher agreement was examined through two indices; mean scores and correlation. Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to investigate the predictive effect of different informant’s reports on children’s actual prosocial response observed in experimental context. Results showed that mean scores rated by mothers were significantly higher than those by teachers, and mother-teacher correlations were moderate for boys (0.34) but absent for girls (0.01). Further examination showed that only teacher’s rating predicted significantly boys’ prosocial response in experimental context and accounted for 11% of the variances in boys’ prosocial response scores, instead both teacher’s and mother’s rating predicted girls’ prosocial response in experimental context and accounted for 8% and 7% of the variances in girls’ prosocial response scores, respectively. Results implied that cross-informant’s discrepancies existed in assessing children’s prosocial behavior, and such discrepancies may reflect that mother and teacher emphasized different aspects of children’s prosocial behavior. On one hand, though teacher and mother paid attention to similar aspects of boy’s prosocial behavior, only teacher’s reports reflected boy’s prosocial response towards stranger Related Articles | Metrics

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The Measurement of Public Service Motivation: Retrospective and Perspective 2012, 35(4): 932-936.  Abstract ( )   The Public Service Motivation is a rising theory in west modern managerial psychology, which has a history no more than 30 years since the construct was proposed, and a history only 20 years for its measurement. This article summarized the main achievement of the measurement of Public Service Motivation, which includes the developing of three forms of measuring, the reliability and the validity of its scaling, and the corresponding verification across different cultures. Reflexion was given on the theoretical construction and its statistical modeling, based on which, the revision of the scaling was summarized. Several perspectives were also point out for the future research: 1) the simultaneous measurement of multi-motive; 2) the implicit measurement of Public Service Motivation; and 3) the indigenization of the measurement of Public Service Motivation. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Integrating Creativity and Leadership：Creative Leadership Qiu-Jiang WEI 2012, 35(4): 937-942.  Abstract ( )   As the development of society and economy, the management theories are developing into the fifth stage, which is called Innovative/Creative Management, and creative leadership is one of its representatives, which is defined as the procedure that the leaders, who construct an organizational climate supporting employees to create, use the creative skills and strategies to stimulate employees to solve problems initiatively and creatively, and achieve the organizational goal finally .The technological change, and competition emphasize the need for creativity, in the organization, which make the scholars pay more attention to the creative leadership, and so many behaviors and cognitions of creative leaders are researched. While seldom papers review these researches, especially, in the perspective of the cognitive mechanism under this leadership style. In this paper, the author try to make up this gap. After exploring the relationships between creativity and leadership, which provided the theoretical and practical bases for creative leadership, this paper analysed the influences and effects of creative leadership in the level of the organization, which included the construct, climate, cultrue, size of the organizations, and also the level of employees, which especially focused on the strategies arousing the employees' creativity . On the bases of summarizing the prior fingding, five strategies were displayed which were appealled the most frequently, while still needed more evidences to approve their functions. Then the author elaborated the antecedents and processes of leaders' and employees' creative thinking and behaviors. In this part, there was one cognitive mechanism model for leaders and employees respectively. Obviously, each model was constructed in the view of the employees, which was the fundamental bias that overlooked the leaders' initiative. More convincing models still need more toil to be constructed. Finally, the future research tendencies, including the needing of new development of the creative leading skills and strategies, research paradigms referencing the neuroscience and multi-dimensional integration of the creative leadership, were discussed as well. Related Articles | Metrics

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Perceived values, satisfaction and continuance: An empirical examination of users of 3G services 2012, 35(4): 943-950.  Abstract ( )   This paper examines perceived values and satisfaction influencing one’s intention to continue using 3G services. Synthesizing theoretical and empirical findings from prior relevant research, we build and tested a theoretical model of 3G continuance. The results suggest that users’ continuance intention is determined by their satisfaction with 3G use and perceived values of continued 3G use. Satisfaction is the strongest predictor of user’s continuance intention. Perceived usefulness and perceived cost not only has direct effect but also has indirect effect via satisfaction on continuance intention. Perceived ease of use and perceived image is not mediated by satisfaction but directly impact on continuance intention. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Emotions and Framing effect Influence Monetary Donations Decision making: An Experimental Research Jun ZHOU 2012, 35(4): 951-956.  Abstract ( )   Monetary donation is a typical behavior of human’s altruism. Individual monetary donation behaviors are determinated by extrinsic variables such as demographic characters, family income condition, religious belief etc. and intrinsic variables such as donation incentives, social responsibility sense, familiarity to charity organizations etc. This study’s purposes are to examine the impact of specific emotions and framing effect on individual monetary donation decision making. A 3×2 between-subjects design crossed an emotion manipulation(neutral, happiness, and sadness)with a framing effect manipulation(survival frame and mortality frame) and one hundred eighty-six participants were assigned to six experimental conditions.The current results suggest that emotions can have dramatic effects on monetary donation decision making, even when they arise from a prior, irrelevant, situation. Sadness can arouse donators’ willing to donate money, and happiness can curb donators’ willing. The results also suggest that framing effect can have significant effects on monetary donation decision making. Emphasizing on mortality frame can arouse donators’ willing to donate while emphasizing on survival frame can curb donators’ willing to donate. Besides advancing theories of emotion and framing effect and donation decision making,these results have practical implications. In sum, the present fndings highlight both the powerful effects that emotion and framing effect can play in donation decision making and the need for research on the mechanisms driving such effects. Related Articles | Metrics

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Review of the researches on brand impression 2012, 35(4): 957-961.  Abstract ( )   Brand impression is the partial or whole information of a brand in the consumer’s mind that comes from consumer’s perception and experience. Brand impression formation involves both of category-based processes and attribute-based processes（schematic and categorical approaches vs. fully attribute-oriented approaches）, but its cognition processes model is still controversial. Common sense suggests that consumers do not use just one strategy to understand a brand, they use a variety of strategies. People often make sense of brand by categorizing it, and, consequently, consumer’s impressions of brand are often primarily based on stereotypes and categories. Alternatively, consumers sometimes make sense of brand by focusing instead on the brand’s own particular individuating characteristics, forming impressions based on the brand’s attributes that go beyond category membership. Two kinds of theories are introduced, one of them is the information integration theory of the brand impression formation, this approach show the view that one’s impression of a brand reflects an integration of the information known to characterize that brand, for example, consumer form brand impression based on the overall Gestalt of the brand or based on the attributes of the brand as elements; the other is a continuum of impression formation, from category-based to individuating processes. It is necessary to distinguish between category-based, top-down processes on the one hand, and attribute-based, bottom-up processes on the other hand. Fiske and Neuberg (1990) suggested that impression formation occurs along a continuum ranging from fully category-based processes to fully attribute-based processes, they assumed that the two represent the extreme endpoints of a continuum that also has intermediate kinds of processes. The empirical research works on Brand Impression Formation mainly embodied in the brand image and brand personality studies, etc. On the basis of comparative analysis, the viewpoint was provided that whether brand image research or brand personality research, what they studied were the consumer’s subjective impression of the objective properties of brand, its essence is the research on consumer’s brand impression. The conception of the brand image was that products had a social and psychological nature as well as a physical one, and that the sets of feelings, ideas and attitudes that consumers had about brands, their "image" of brands, were crucial to purchase choice. Meanwhile, some scholars consider that salient brand personality dimensions may affect consumer perceptions of personality traits of the owner of the brand. An effect exists involving the transfer of brand personality traits to consumer personality traits via a process of impression formation (Fennis & Pruyn, 2007). Brand impression is the basis of the relationship between brand and consumers. The task of brand construction is to accumulate the brand equity by regulating and controlling consumer’s brand cognition, brand association, brand attitude, brand trust and brand loyalty, based on understanding of the psycho-mechanism of brand impression formation deeply. Related Articles | Metrics

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The effect of Self- esteem and encoding depth on recognition bias of positive and negative words 2012, 35(4): 962-967.  Abstract ( )   2(types of explicit self-esteem) ×2(types of implicit self-esteem) ×2(levels of encoding) ×3(valence of words) mixed design was mainly adopted in this study to explore memory bias of valences of the words on two levels of encoding of 89 participants with different self-esteem structures. The results were as follows: (1)In shallow level of encoding group, participants with low implicit self-esteem had more positive memory bias than those with high implicit self-esteem. But there was no difference between participants with high and low explicit self-esteem.(2)In deep level of encoding group, different self-esteem structures had different influences on unconscious retrieval of positive words.(3)All participants had positive bias. Related Articles | Metrics

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Impact of Procrastination on Work Performance: The Moderating Effects of Pressure Preference and Task Type 2012, 35(4): 968-972.  Abstract ( )   The purpose of this study is to explore the moderating effects of (1) preference of pressure and (2) task type on the relationship between procrastination and performance. Procrastination represents individual’s behavior of delaying and postponing their action and effort toward completing certain tasks. In general, procrastination tends to lead to lower performance, but recent research implies that their relationship is contingent upon a number of contextual and individual factors. This paper advances current research on procrastination by incorporating both individual and contextual factors in analyzing procrastination’s effects. Specifically, some individuals may prefer pressure when performing tasks, making their performance less impacted by procrastination. Thus, we hypothesize that procrastination will lead to more negative effects on performance for individuals who dislike pressures than to individuals who prefer pressures. Following the traditional person-situation fit perspective, different degrees of procrastination’s impact on performance are also proposed when completing different types of tasks. Specifically, we hypothesize that procrastination may influence performance for simple tasks more greatly than for complex tasks for pressure-preferring individuals. Survey data obtained from 155 participants were used to test the theoretical analyses. These participants responded to questions regarding their pressure preference, their tendency of procrastinate at work, as well as their self-reported performance evaluations when completing simple and complex tasks. All survey questions were designed according to previously validated studies. Hierarchical regression approaches were adopted to analyze the data. The study found a number of important results. First, individual differences in pressure preference moderates the relationship between procrastination and performance: compared to workers preferring pressure, the ones who dislike pressure reported lower levels of performance if they procrastinate. Second, the task characteristic further moderates the relationship between procrastination, individual preference of pressure, and performance: in completing a complex task, the effect of procrastination on performance is smaller for the workers preferring pressure than for those disliking pressure; however, in completing a simple task, the difference between the two kinds of workers is not significant—both workers disliking pressures and preferring pressures tend to obtain lower performance if they procrastinate. In conclusion, preference of pressure could ameliorate the effect of procrastination on performance, and the moderating effect will be stronger when completing a complex task. For individuals disliking pressure, their performance will be worse for simple and complex tasks. The results were consistent with theoretical analyses that the effects of procrastination on performance are contingent upon both individual and situational factors. This study contributes to the study of procrastination’s effect. Specifically, the effect that procrastination has on performance depends on the individual factor of preference of pressure and the contextual factor of task type. Managers of different types of workers and different types of jobs can facilitate their management of working schedules informed by these results. Related Articles | Metrics

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Effects of person-organization value fit on employees' job involvement and perceived organizational support Xiao-Hong TAN 2012, 35(4): 973-977.  Abstract ( )   In the present study, we tried to examine the influence of person-organization value fit on the outcome variables, including employees’ job satisfaction, job involvement, perceived organizational support, as well as intention to quit. In the field of managerial psychology and human resource management, person-organization value fit was defined as the match between the values held by individuals and organizations. The theoretical importance and practical significance of person-organization value fit had been recognized. So, the object of this study is to probe into the person-organization fit from the perspective of values, namely to empirical investigate the person-organization values fit. In this study, with the Organizational Values Scale, the Overall Job Satisfaction Survey, the Work Involvement Scale, the Survey of Perceived Organizational Support, and the Intention to Quit Scale, 798 employees from 33 manufacture enterprises were surveyed, and the data were analyzed at the individual level using correlation analysis and hierarchical regression analysis. The thesis adopted the method of indirect individual-levels measurement and calculated the fit index using the absolute value of subtract. The result showed that (1) the person-organizational value fit was positively related to job satisfaction, job involvement, and perceived organizational support, and negatively related to intention to quit. (2) After controlling the demographic variables (i.e. age, sex, educational level), the person-organization values fit had significant positive effects on job satisfaction, job involvement, and perceived organizational support, and had a significant negative prediction on intention to quit. The present research contributes to our understanding of the relationship between person-organization value fit and job satisfaction, job involvement, perceived organizational support and intention to quit by explaining in more detail the psychological mechanisms involved. The results of this study have research as well as managerial implications. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Relationship Between Individual Career Management and Career Plateau of Employees 2012, 35(4): 978-983.  Abstract ( )   With the flatting development of the organization structure and gradually reduced management levels, promotion becomes more difficult than ever. More and more employees, especially management personnel, are getting into trouble with stagnation of career development. Then, career plateau phenomenon appears. According to the idea of Zeng Chuikai, career plateau is such a phenomena that in a certain phase of individual’s career development, the long stay in a position make the career flow (including vertical flow, horizontal flow, and central flow) difficult to realize and cause his or her career development stagnation. Career plateau includes three aspects, hierarchal plateau (few possibility to promote in present organization), content plateau (few opportunity to learn new skills) and inclusive plateau (few possibility towards responsibility center). Since career plateau brings lots of adverse influence to both individuals and organization, its relationship with individual career management now gets more and more attention in the world. To explore the relationship of individual career management and career plateau, in this research we made a questionnaire survey on employees of firms in the mainland China. Among the samples of 396 employees, 338 questionnaires were proved valid. The questionnaires comprised three parts. Part one included items about the demographic characteristics of the subjects. Part two adopted the Individual Career Management Scales developed by Long Lirong, Fang Liluo, and Ling Wenquan, including 18 items and 5 dimensions, which are career exploration, career goal setting and strategy identification, continuous learning, self-nomination, and interpersonal relationship orientation. Part three applied the Career Platesu Scales developed by Xie Baoguo and Long Lirong and revised by Zeng Chuikai, which included 15 items and 3 dimensions, that is, hierarchal plateau, content plateau and inclusive plateau. The bivariate correlation analysis results showed that: Firstly, career exploration had remarkably positive relation with hierarchal plateau, content plateau and inclusive plateau; Secondly, career goal setting and strategy identification were negatively related to hierarchal plateau, content plateau and inclusive plateau significantly; Thirdly, all of the continuous learning, self-nomination, and interpersonal relationship orientation were negatively related to content plateau and inclusive plateau significantly. The multiple levels regression analysis results showed that: Firstly, career exploration has significant positive effect on hierarchal plateau, content plateau and inclusive plateau; Secondly, career goal setting and strategy identification has conspicuous negative effect on hierarchal plateau, and continuous learning has negative effect on content plateau, and interpersonal relationship orientation has negative significant effect on both inclusive plateau and content plateau; Thirdly, though self-nomination were negatively related to content plateau and inclusive plateau significantly in bivariate crelations analysis, it had no obvious effect on content plateau and inclusive plateau in multiple levels regression analysis. In conclusion, individual career management has significant effect on career plateau. Among the dimensions of the individual career management, career exploration had a positive effect on hierarchal plateau, content plateau and inclusive plateau, but other dimensions showed a negative effect in this research. Does career plateau have a reversed relationship with individual career management? It could not be answered in this research due to the limitation of cross-sectional research. So we suggested investigating their relationships through the longitudinal follow-up research in future. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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A Review of Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Test 2012, 35(4): 984-987.  Abstract ( )   The first Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal intelligence test (SON test) was published in 1943 by Mrs. Nan Snijders-Oomen as a result of her work with children at the Institute for the Deaf in Sint-Michielsgestel. SON Test is extremely popular in Europe and then spread to Latin America and Asia. Over a period of sixty years, a series of revised versions of SON test have been published --- SON-'58, SON 2.5-7, SSON, SON-R 5.5-17, and SON-R 2.5-7. The new version, SON-R 6-40, is expected to be published in 2011. In this paper the two latest revisions of the SON-test, the SON-R 5.5-17 and the SON-R 6-40, will be described. The SON-R 5.5-17, published in 1988, is a general intelligence test for people ranging from 5.5 to 17 years old. This test includes 7 subtests of Categories, Analogies, Situations, Stories, Mosaics, Patterns and Hidden Pictures, measuring four kinds of abilities --- abstract reasoning ability, concrete reasoning ability, spatial ability and perceptual ability. Research results of SON-R 5.5-17 with various groups of children have been published, indicating acceptable internal consistency reliability, generalizability and validity. The SON-R 6-40 selects four subtests from SON-R 5.5-17 --- Analogies, Mosaics, Categories, and Patterns, assessing a broad spectrum of cognitive abilities of people ranging from 6 to 40 years old without involving the use of language. Standardization of SON-R 6-40 have been taking place since 2009 and will be finished in 2011. A number of features make the SON test particularly suitable for various groups, especially for children who are difficult to test. In the first place, the SON test has both verbal and non-verbal instructions, which makes it especially suitable for children who have problems or handicaps in language, speech or communication. Additionally, the adaptive procedure in presenting the items and the discontinuation rules restrict the administration of items that are too difficult for subjects. Simultaneously, the feedback is given as to whether the subject's answer is right or wrong. Last but not least, the cognitive diagnosis function of the SON test makes the assessments and interventions of mental retarded people possible. Because of all the advantages of SON test, it is critical to put it to use in China, both experimentally and practically. Related Articles | Metrics

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A Study of the Influence of Emotion on Bayesian Reasoning 2012, 35(4): 988-992.  Abstract ( )   见附件“情绪对贝叶斯推理的影响”英文摘要.doc Related Articles | Metrics

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Factor Structures of Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale among Elderly Adults Baoshan Zhang 2012, 35(4): 993-998.  Abstract ( )   Abstract: Objectives: The Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) is a self-rating scale for the measuring depressive symptoms in community settings. It is commonly used as a screening instrument for possible depression. Factor analytic studies have shown that the 20 items of CES-D represent depressed affect, positive affective (reversed items), somatic complaints, and interpersonal concerns (Radloff, 1977). Although it is one of the most commonly used questionnaires in the world, limited studies have focused their attentions on the factor structures of the CES-D among the groups of Chinese elderly adults. The objective of the present study was to examine the factor structures of CES-D in Chinese elderly populations. Method: In a national sample of 4903 elderly adults recruited from major Chinese mainland cities, the CES-D was assessed. Results: a) Confirmatory factor analysis for 20 items of CES-D demonstrated that the four- factor structure identified by Radloff (1977), as well as two three- factor structures suggested by Guarnaccia et al. (1989) and Yen et al. (2000) fit the present data well with RMSEA, SRMR＜0.08，NNFI、GFI and AGFI＞0.90, as well as CFI＞0.95, which indicated that these factor structures could be replicated in Chinese elderly population; b) The correlations between positive affect factor which consist of four reverse scoring items and the other factors were too low to support a common higher order factor, the range of rs was from 0.35 to 0.46, which was smaller than the cut-off value of .50; c) Based on point b, under the conditions that the total score is used to indicate individuals’ levels of depressive symptoms, the four items of positive affect should not be included in the CES-D. In the following analysis, we tried to test the factor structures of CES-D with exclusion of positive factor and found positive affect factor only made limited contributions to the model fits. Combining both original definition and fit indices, Radloff’s factor structure was chosen as the most suitable for the CES-D consist of remaining 16 items RMSEA=.067, SRMR=.033, CFI=.98, NNFI=.98, and GFI=.94; d) Measurement invariance was established across gender for the factor structure of the remaining 16 items. Conclusion: a) Among Chinese elderly adults, the CES–D may provide a better measure of depressive symptoms as a 16-item scale with the positive affect factor left out ; and b) The factor structure identified by Radloff fit the 16-item scale best. Related Articles | Metrics

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A Research on the Characteristics in Initial Sandtray of the depression symptoms 2012, 35(4): 999-1003.  Abstract ( )   To explore the particular inner world of the somatization symptoms with the sandplay therapy，and to summarize the characteristics in Initial Sandtray of the depression symptoms. The research selected the 33 depression symptoms as the experimental group and 36 healthy students the control group by the scl-90 ,the 69 students applyed the initial sandplay operation. Collect the initial sandplay encoding of information by coding table,and analyzed by T test、and Chi-square test and Regression analysis.Result sole that:on the use of toys,the experimental group was significantly lower in total、animal、people、buildings、transports、plants; the space utilization from were lower than the control group; Compar with the control grou，where to start、the attitude to sand、whether show the blue bottom、whether the use of bridge、whether satisfied、whether the self-image in and the theme setting,all the differences were statistically significant.on the theme of sandplay, inmultipleregression analysis，neglect、threat、travel and energy were included in regression equation of the depression symptoms..The result show that the depression symptoms have significantly characteristics in sandplay. initial sandplay is valuable to be a clinical psychological assessment. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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ADHD Screening of School-aged Children Aged 7 to 10 Yang SiZHOU Zengqiang WU 2012, 35(4): 1004-1008.  Abstract ( )   Purpose: We have chosen the pupils of Grade two to four from ten primary schools in Shanghai to target high-risk children of ADHD for the further multi-assessment. Tools: SDQ (parent-report) was completed by the American psychologist Goodman. R. and the norm in Shanghai was completed by Kou Jianhua, Du Yasong and Xia Liming in 2005, which shows good reliability and validity. Cross-cultural applicability of SDQ proved to be good. Methods: The sample consisted of 4483 children (7–10 years old) with valid answers on the whole 25 items of the SDQ parent-report. IBM SPSS Statistics 19 was used for statistical treatment. According to the results of statistical treatment, the number of the final selected subjects was 4454, aged from 7 to 10, including 2297 boys and 2157 girls. These subjects were divided into eight groups by age and sex. Boxplot, Descriptive Statistic and Independent-Samples T Test were used to for data processing. After that, we classified the scores of ADHD by groups (see Table 4 and 5). Procedure：In September of 2009, we informed the parents of the objects and obtained their consent of SDQ. Then 4483 valid questionnaires were received by deleting 305 invalid questionnaires from the total 4788. Effectiveness of the questionnaires is up to 93.63 percent. Results: Among boys, 8-year-old subjects achieved the highest score and 9-year-old subjects showed the most decentralized degree of the distribution; among girls, 9-year-old subjects achieved the highest score and showed the most decentralized degree of the distribution (see Table 1). Boys had higher scores (p<.01) at each age (see Table 1 and 2). Differences in ages existed but weren’t significant (see Table 3). Girls and 9-year-old boys eventually showed five grades, for there were no ADHD scores below the mean by two standard deviations. The remaining subjects receive six grades (see Table 4). Besides, in Grade Red and Orange, the two highest, the total percentage of girls was higher than boys (4.50VS.2.92, 12.48VS.11.48). Conclusion： (1)The most serious symptoms of ADHD appear at 9; (2) Girls have a higher risk of ADHD; (3) Children with High-risk ADHD are screened out: boy 14.4%, girl 17.4%. Innovation：The usage of hierarchical Strategy proved to be more scientific, with the research data reflecting the objective situation of ADHD with more details and the research findings closer to the truth. Related Articles | Metrics

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An Experimental Study of Biofeedback Therapy on Intervention for Test Anxiety of University Students Tong YuYing 2012, 35(4): 1009-1012.  Abstract ( )   Objective: The use of biofeedback therapy on intervention for test anxiety in university students. Methods: In this study, we selected randomly a comprehensive university of 1,500 students using the Test Anxiety Inventory (Test Anxiety scale, TAS) for evaluation, according to survey results, who were divided into two groups: anxiety group ( n = 30) and control group ( n = 30).The anxiety group and control group respectively received 40 minutes biofeedback intervention 2 times per week for 4 weeks. The use of Physiological indicators including EEG relative power a wave, electromyography (EMG) and skin conductance(SC) were detected together. Results : 1. After 4 weeks of continuous treatment, anxiety group received before and after intervention α wave EEG relative power, electromyography (EMG), and skin conductance exists differences; 2. Anxiety group of students before and after treatment on the physiological significance also exist; 3. Biofeedback therapy for test anxiety in different from the sexes, girls superior to boys. Conclusion: Biofeedback therapy can effectively reduce the level of test anxiety in university students. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Motivity of Individual Behavior the Inferiority Complex or the Gumption 2012, 35(4): 1013-1017.  Abstract ( )   Related Articles | Metrics

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The deficit of inhibition and delay aversion of ADHD: The interpretation from the dual pathway theory 2012, 35(4): 1018-1022.  Abstract ( )   The behavioral inhibition theory regards the disinhibition as the core deficit in ADHD, but Sonuga-Barke’s delay aversion theory deems that deley aversion cause ADHD, not disinhibition. Delay aversion can not explain the all symptoms of ADHD, Sonuga-Barke modified his theory and brought up the dual pathway theory of ADHD. According the dual pathway theory, delay aversion and disinhibition co-exist and contribute to the symptoms of ADHD. The DTAP pathway emphasizes the defective inhibitory control of ADHD, and the MSP pathway emphasizes that the abnormality of the reward circuit causes the stronger delay aversion. This article introduces the empirical researches, diagnosis , intervention and the limitation related to the dual pathway theory. References | Related Articles | Metrics