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Delayed Effect of the Influence of Perceptual Ambiguity on Judgments of Learning 2021, (1): 2-8.  Abstract ( )   Perceptual fluency refers to a subjective feeling or experience of the individual's difficulty in processing external information at the level of perception, reflecting the low-level processing of the attributes related to stimulating external forms. Previous studies have found that reducing the perceptual fluency of learning materials appropriately, could increase the subjective difficulty perceived by learners, which would stimulate the learners' analytical thinking, improve their academic performance ultimately. This phenomenon is called “disfluency effect” in educational psychology. While some difficult learning conditions can improve learning, the findings regarding the contribution of disfluent materials have been inconsistent. We seek breakthroughs in terms of more rational theoretical frameworks and boundary conditions of disfluent effects. It is suggested that the qualitative match of the evoked encoding processes of the applied difficulty with respect to the required retrieval processes of the memory test and the time delayed of the test may be two key factors affecting the disfluent effect. We believe that learning is a dynamic and complex process, whether memory is improved and enhanced is a time-dependent dynamic problem. Therefore, immediate performance does not reflect the effect of disfluency on memory intervention. Disfluent effects will appear over time. This study explored the delayed disfluent effects of perception through three experiments, the results discussed when and under which circumstances disfluency can promote learning as a desirable difficulty. The study explored how does the perceptual blurry affect judgments of learning and memory (immediate/delayed) in the recall in Experiment 1 and in the recognition in Experiment 2, by manipulating word clarity and using the continuous identification (CID) task paradigm. CID task is more sensitive in measure perceptual fluency. It can focus on word recognition in a short period of time without too much processing of semantic information, and more importantly, it can minimize the perception of disfluent experimental manipulation. The Experiments used different memory tests to detect disfluent effects in the same experimental manipulation modes, in order to explore whether the effect depends on the similarity of encoding process and retrieval process. The Experiment 3 replaced the experimental material with a picture, changes the picture clarity to explore whether the delayed disfluent effect of perception still exists in non-semantic concepts such as images. The above studies mainly obtained the following results: (1) Perceptual disfluency as a cue affected our judgments of learning. Compared with clear and fluent materials, we will give blurry and disfluent materials to lower JOLs. It is harder to remember for items that experienced difficulty. (2) The perceptual blurry of the materials had no effect on the immediate recall or recognition performance. After a certain test time delayed, the blurry material which with lower fluency had better performance, and the naming fluency did not interfere with judgments of learning and memory performance in the Experiment. (3) The qualitative match of the evoked encoding processes of the applied difficulty with respect to the required retrieval processes of the memory test as well as when there was a certain time delayed between the experimental manipulation and memory test, the perceptual disfluency can promote learning as a desirable difficulty. (4) This perceptual disfluent delayed effect exists not only in semantic concepts such as words, but also in non-semantic concepts such as images, which have certain stability and universality. The results showed that the encoding process triggered by the experimental manipulation mode matches the retrieval process required by the memory test in nature, and when there was a certain time delay between the experimental manipulation and memory test, perceptual disfluency can be used as a reasonable difficulty to facilitate learning. Related Articles | Metrics

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Viewpoint Dependent Effects in Real Object Search 2021, (1): 16-22.  Abstract ( )   Previous studies have found viewpoint-dependent effect in object recognition. So one important question is whether view-dependent effect is held in object search. The present study explores the view-dependent effect and its roles in real object search. The pilot study was used to select 25 objects from 60 objects. Each type of object has two pictures-one canonical view and one accidental view and totally 50 pictures was used as formal experimental material. Real object search paradigm and two (cue type: picture cue vs. name cue) by two (target object view: canonical view vs. accidental view) within-subject design were employed. The events of one trials were as follows: The fixation across of 500-800 ms was firstly presented at the center of screen. Then a picture or a name cue of target object was remained on screen for 1000 ms and was followed by an 800-ms blank screen. Then search display composed of six items (one target object and five distractive objects) was presented and participants were asked to search target object. When participants find the target object, fixate it and press the response key. The picture cue and name cue were counterbalanced in blocks between participants. The whole experiment composed of two blocks of 50 trials (totally 100 trials). The experimental stimuli were presented using a PsychoPy-programmed PC and LCD monitor (21" TFT; resolution: 1920 ×1280 pixels; refresh rate: 60 Hz; view distance: 70 cm). The SMI RED eye tracking system (SensoMotoric Instruments, Teltow, Germany) were employed to record the participants’ eye movements during the whole search processes. As shown in Figure 1, the findings of this study are as follows: A similar data pattern appears on accuracy and response times, showing a significant interaction between cue type and view type of target object. Specifically speaking, when the search cue is the name of target object, the search performance for canonical view target object is superior to that for accidental view of target object (accuracy: p = 0.014; reaction times: p < 0.001); when the search cue is the picture of target object, there is no difference in search performance between canonical view and accidental view conditions (ps > 0.210). A similar interactive data pattern also appears on eye movements during scanning epoch and verification epoch of the whole search processes. Specifically speaking, when the search cue is the name of target object, the durations of scanning epoch and verification epoch for canonical view target object are short than those for accidental view (ps < 0.001), and the fixation numbers of scanning epoch and verification epoch for canonical view target object are less than those for accidental view (ps < 0.001); when the search cue is the picture of target object, there is no difference in durations and fixation numbers of scanning epoch and verification epoch between canonical view and accidental view conditions (ps > 0.05). It can draw the following conclusions: in the search for object with the name as cue, the canonical view enhances the efficiency of attentional guidance by select the potential locations of the target object and speeds up the target object verification process by reducing the fixation number. So the view dependent effects are held in both scanning epoch and verification epoch, supporting for the dual-function theory of target template Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Self-reflection on Wisdom: A Moderated Mediating Model 2021, (1): 23-29.  Abstract ( )   Wisdom has been defined as a constellation of mature personality characteristics and expertise in the fundamental pragmatics of life. In the past decades, researchers have dedicated to the issues of definition and measurement rather than the growth of wisdom. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the factors and their internal mechanism that influence wisdom. The researches on the relationship between wisdom and age suggest that wisdom does not increase automatically with age, certain internal and external factors are necessary for wisdom to grow with age. Many empirical studies have revealed that self-reflection is both an important component of wisdom and an important factor and the process to promote wisdom. Moreover, studies indicate that searching for meaning plays an important role in the growth of individual wisdom, and self-reflection may also influence wisdom through the mediating process of searching for meaning. At the same time, previous researches suggest that the effect of self-reflection on wisdom through the mediating process of searching for meaning may be moderated by life events. For individuals who experienced more life events, the mediating effect may be stronger. The present study constructed a moderated mediating model and aimed to explore the effect of self-reflection on wisdom and to investigate the mediating effect of searching for meaning on the relationship between self-reflection and wisdom as well as the moderated effect of life events on this mediating process. A total of 1019 college students (841 female and 178 male with the age of 20.48 ± 1.94 years) were recruited as participants in the study and completed self-reflection scale, brief wisdom screening scale, searching for meaning questionnaire and adolescent self-rating life events checklist. The results indicated that self-reflection positively predicted wisdom, which confirmed self-reflection was a critical determinant of wisdom. Searching for meaning partially mediated the relationship between self-reflection and wisdom, specifically, self-reflection not only directly influenced wisdom, but also indirectly influenced wisdom through searching for meaning. Life events moderated the mediating effect of searching for meaning on the relationship between self-reflection and wisdom, life events moderated the second path of the mediation, to be more specific, self-reflection significantly influenced the wisdom through the mediating role of searching for meaning for the individuals who experienced more life events, whereas the indirect effect of self-reflection through search for meaning on wisdom was not significant for the individuals who experienced fewer life events. Therefore, the effect of self-reflection on wisdom was a moderated mediating model, and the indirect effect was significant for the individuals who experienced more life events. In conclusion, the present study not only revealed how self-reflection influenced wisdom, but also demonstrated when the mediating effect was stronger. At the theoretical level, these findings provided a way of thinking about the developmental mechanism of wisdom. In terms of practical implications, these findings suggested that in the interventions of wisdom-fostering, especially for individuals who had experienced many kinds of difficulties and hardships, they should be encouraged to conduct exploratory self-reflection on the negative life experiences and do the effortful work to find life meaning in these difficult experiences, so as to promote the development of their wisdom rather than other negative effects. Related Articles | Metrics

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Dialogue between Mind and Body: Toward an Interoceptive Embodied Cognition Jing ZHANG CHEN Wei 2021, (1): 30-36.  Abstract ( )   The concept of embodied cognition attempts to emphasize that the mind is rooted in the body, and physical experience has important influences on cognitive processes. However, how is the dialogue between mind and body going on? How and through what channels does the body affect mind? In regard to such questions mentioned above, what we knew is still little. Traditional research of embodied cognition encounters not only the repeatability crisis, but also a reliability problem on the conclusion that changing physical states affect advanced cognition. In addition to performing more studies to explore the relationships between physical states and cognitive results, some studies have begun to turn their attention to interoception. The broad sense of interoception includes proprioception and visceroception. The former mainly refers to signals from skin, muscle and skeleton, while the latter refers to signals from internal organs. During actual research, due to operational and ethical reasons, the accuracy of heartbeat perception is one of the most commonly used indicators of an individual’s interoceptive sensitivity. In recent years, more and more evidence has shown that interoception is closely related to bodily-self representation, embodied emotion, as well as social cognition. The study of interoception and bodily-self representation is one of the main aspects of the interoception diversion in embodied cognition. It is well known that rubber hand illusion (RHI) is an experiment in which synchronic visual and tactile stimulations can give rise to a body part ownership illusion. Based on the paradigm of rubber hand illusion, many studies revealed there is a positive correlation between the interoceptive accuracy and the stability of bodily-self representation, which seems to limit the effect of exteroception signals on body perception. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that if the exteroception model of self emphasizes the plasticity of body perception, the interoception model seems to serve the stability of the body and its psychological representation of external changes. Another important issue of concern is the study of interoception and embodied emotions. Traditional embodied cognition holds the idea that there is a direct relationship between body states and emotions, thus emotional understanding involves embodied simulation. However, recent studies on interoception and embodied emotions have shown that body signals are converted into experiences and then fed into the cognitive system may be more reasonable than the traditional hypothesis that body signals are directly related to the cognitive system. In a word, it is likely that interoception plays an important regulatory role in our physical processing and advanced cognitive processes. If we consider the research from disembodied cognition to embodied cognition as a re-established of body’s core position in self related debate, then the interoception diversion of embodied cognition is a process from fragmented understanding to comprehensive understanding of self. The interoception diversion in the research of embodied cognition may become a critical driving force to lead embodied cognition out of the current dilemma, and promote the further development of embodied cognition. However, more in-depth and detailed discussions about the relationship between body and mind depend on more interoception researches. First of all, research on the relationship between interoception and body representation needs to be further explored. Secondly, it is necessary to expand the potential research objects of interoception and embodiment research. Last but not least, it is important to enrich the coverage of research related to interoception and embodied cognition. Related Articles | Metrics

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The cognitive and neural mechanisms of perseverative cognition lead to the prolonged stress response 2021, (1): 37-44.  Abstract ( )   Perseverative cognition is that the repeated or chronic activation of the cognitive representation of one or more psychological stressors. Stress is a systemic non-specific adaptive response induced by various internal and external environmental stimuli. Although stress response is an adaptive response help us face the ever-changed ecological demands, the prolonged stress response before and after the stressful event is harmful to our health. Perseverative cognition is an essential factor that causes a prolonged stress response，it usually consist of two types: explicit and implicit. The perseverative cognition can be measured by heart rate variability (HRV) and scales, and can also be induced in the laboratory through standardized procedures. Perseverative cognition can be thought of as a mediator or a pathway by which the stressor exercises its effects on the physical and psychological healthy. The relationship between perseverative cognition and our healthy can be explained in two ways. Firstly, some study found that perseverative cognition plays an important role in the stress–disease process. Both explicit perseverative cognition and implicit perseverative cognition have a negative impact on physical healthy. Secondly, perseverative cognition is regarded as one of the most critical influences on psychological healthy. Some cognitive processes is seriously damaged by perseverative cognition, such as working memory, emotion regulation etc. Previous studies have shown that the critical cognitive mechanism of perseverative cognition is that people cannot recognize safety signals in the environment, which leads to a prolonged stress response. People can actively inhibit stress response when they confirm that safety has been established. While those who fail to recognize a safety signal make undifferentiated stress responses to the threat and neutral stimuli. Perseverative cognition interferes with the recognition of the safety signals, leading to prolonged stress response. This process is associated with brain areas that monitor for potential threats, including the prefrontal cortex, the anterior cingulate gyrus, and the amygdala. The prefrontal cortex monitors external threats, and lift the inhibition of the stress response when external threats are recognized. Perseverative cognition leads to the dysfunction of the prefrontal cortex, people fails to inhibit the stress response in the absence of an apparent threat stimulus. After the stress response and perseverative cognition last for an extended period, the more focal problem is the pathological changes of the brain, such as the larger volume of core Central Autonomic Network (CAN) regions and the weaker connection between the amygdala and prefrontal cortex. The evidence reviewed in the current article suggests that future research needs to systematically investigate the critical influencing factors of perseverative cognition. At the same time, we should focus on the intervention methods of perseverative cognition. The early action on perseverative cognition intervening has not reached the clinical level. Last but not least, we need pay more attention to implicit perseverative cognition. For example, we can adopt a more new research paradigm and cognitive neuroscience technique to explore it. There were pieces of evidence that the implicit perseverative cognition is associated with the impairment of the physical and physiological recovery at night. Those studies, however, failed to demonstrate the harmful effect of the implicit perseverative cognition on the physical and physiological health. Related Articles | Metrics

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Emotional Valence Specificity of the Amygdala Liu Wei 2021, (1): 45-51.  Abstract ( )   The neural basis of emotional processing is an important basic issue in emotional psychology, especially in affective neuroscience research. Numerous studies have indicated that the amygdala is involved in different stages of emotion recognition, processing, and regulation, and is a key brain area for emotional processing. This paper reviews the academic history of the emotional processing function of the amygdala, and summarizes it into three stages. In the third stage (i.e., from the beginning of research using positive and negative emotional stimuli until now), psychology and neuroscience continue to deepen our understanding of the function of the amygdala, and have discovered a cutting-edge topic—the emotional valence specificity of the amygdala. In this article, we show that there is a specific trend of the left amygdala on positive emotional stimuli, the right amygdala on negative emotional stimuli, and negative preference of bilateral amygdala. In other words, when both positive and negative emotional stimuli are presented, the bilateral amygdala shows significantly greater activation when processing negative emotions. We also explain the phenomenon of differences in activation of the amygdala based on emotional valence from the perspective of evolution, amygdala anatomy, and psychological processing. However, we must also be aware that the specificity of the amygdala to different valences is regulated by factors such as age, gender, socioeconomic status, attentional resources, and the prominence of emotional materials. More importantly, though the amygdala displays lateralization of activation caused by different emotional valences, the functional connectivity between the amygdala and other brain regions is still required. For example, the prefrontal cortex (PFC) has a control function that can help individuals direct attention to positive stimulation, avoid negative stimulation, and favor processing of positive stimulation by the amygdala. Therefore, we conclude that the amygdala's valence specificity does exist objectively, but is relative. We also need to consider many confounding factors including the materials and subjects, and that complete emotional processing is impossible without bilateral amygdala coordination and synergy of multiple brain regions. Based on the findings and limitations of existing research, we suggest that future research should consider the following: (1) exploring the regulatory effect of attention on the specificity of emotional valence of the amygdala; (2) controlling multiple confounding factors and using more diverse experimental materials such as short videos, instead of being limited to static emotional stimulation; (3) clarifying the connection of brain networks when processing emotional information of different valences, and applying it to clinical practice to explore the feasibility of stimulating the corresponding brain network to regulate emotion and reduce negative emotional experiences of patients with emotional processing difficulties; and (4) exploring the performance of amygdala valence specificity in advanced cognitive processes such as thinking, planning, and decision-making in order to further clarify the neural mechanisms. In this way, future research can break through the limitations of previous studies that used emotional evaluation, attention, and recognition as indicators of results. The discussion on the valence specificity of the amygdala helps us understand the corresponding brain basis of emotional valence and the evolutionary mechanism of positive and negative emotions, in addition to helping us understand the laterality and cooperative relationships of the amygdala in emotional processing. These findings also have multiple implications for psychology and evolutionary epistemology, and can promote research in and development of the field of affective neuroscience. Related Articles | Metrics

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How does emotional computing technology promote the development of crime risk assessment tools? Ye-Zhen SONG 2021, (1): 52-59.  Abstract ( )   Abstract：With the development of artificial intelligence in deep learning technology in recent years, emotional computing and personality computing technology are maturing day by day and have achieved good performance in many practical application scenarios. Applying artificial intelligence emotional computing technology to the field of crime risk assessment can effectively solve the problem of intra-individual difference prediction factor assessment, which is difficult to be solved by current mainstream risk assessment tools, and the problem of distortion of results caused by social approval of participants being assessed. At present, the mainstream assessment tools are mainly structured clinical assessment tools and statistical actuarial assessment tools. The limitations of structured clinical violence risk assessment tools are mainly reflected in the following aspects: there are explanatory barriers to the inherent causal mechanism between mental disorders and violent crimes, and individuals with mental disorders may not necessarily have high risk of violent crimes; Although the statistical actuarial crime risk assessment tool performs well in prediction validity, it lacks the explanation of causal mechanism between prediction factors and criminal acts, so it is difficult to form a systematic explanation of the causes of criminal acts. A large number of relevant factors are incorporated into the statistical actuarial evaluation tool, which makes the tool more "bloated" and takes a lot of time to complete an evaluation. Most statistical actuarial evaluation tools obtain data through self-evaluation and self-presentation, which are easily affected by social approval effect and distort the data. The mainstream crime risk assessment tools are mainly applied to the field of crime risk assessment in prisons and re-crime risk assessment after leaving prison. Due to the long time-consuming operation of static assessment tools, the unwillingness of criminals in prisons to cooperate with the assessment work, and the serious deviation of assessment results from methods such as social approval effect, the static assessment tools are confronted with realistic difficulties such as assessment distortion, time-consuming and labor-consuming, and difficulty in realizing dynamic real-time crime risk assessment in prisons. In order to solve the above practical difficulties, a dynamic crime risk assessment tool based on emotional psychology and supported by artificial intelligence emotional computing technology has been developed, which focuses on solving the problems of violence risk and escape risk assessment that are the focus of crime risk assessment in prisons. The crime risk dynamic assessment tool is based on emotional psychology and supported by artificial intelligence emotional computing technology. It objectively observes and calculates the emotional time series state of the assessment object, and automatically obtains the emotional type and emotional fluctuation degree of the assessment object at a certain point in time. The dynamic criminal risk assessment tool based on emotional computing technology can solve the problem of risk factor assessment and prediction of intra-individual differences, which is difficult to solve with previous tools. At the same time, because emotion computing technology mainly uses cameras to collect individual image data, it does not need appraisers to answer questions, which can effectively avoid the appearance of social approval effect. The future development of the crime risk dynamic assessment tool is mainly to realize the echo with the static assessment tool to realize the measurement technology. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Development of Preschool Children’s Co-representation in Joint Actions 2021, (1): 60-66.  Abstract ( )   Joint actions refers to any form of social interaction whereby two or more individuals coordinate their actions in space and time to bring about a change in the environment. At present, there are debates in existing literature about when children have the ability to perform adult-like joint actions because of the difficulty in identifying what mechanisms underlie the behaviors observed in children. In order to coordinate successfully, adults always represent tasks/actions of their own and partners’ in a functionally equivalent way, in which their own performance would be interfered. This interference phenomenon can be used as a index for adult-like joint action in children. The current study investigated whether young children owned the ability of co-representation which brought with interference in joint tasks. In experiment 1, 186 children aged 3~5 years old were chosen randomly to complete Same tasks or Different tasks with experimenter(partner). In the Same task condition, children and their partner had to press mouse button to respond to the same stimulus, while in the Different task condition, they had to respond to two different stimulus. If children co-represent their partner in this joint task, then there should be a cost to performance when the partner is following a different rule, compared with following the same rule. However, if children do not co-represent, the rule their partner is following would not cause interference. The results indicated that there were no significant difference between Same and Different task condition in 3 years old children, while children aged 4 and 5 years old performed worse in Different task than in Same condition. It indicated that 4 years old children might begin to experience interference in Different task. However, a potential alternative explanation for the difference between the two conditions was that participants in the Different task were confused about their task rules, as children heard two different instructions, while in the Same task participants heard the same instruction twice. In order to exclude the potential interpretation, a condition that co-representation of partner’s task might be beneficial, but where confusion due to instructions would be detrimental was designed. In experiment 2, children aged from 4 to 5 years old switched which stimulus to respond to half way through the game. If the children in the Different task were representing their partner’s task in the first half of the experiment, then switch costs should be reduced, as children already had the representation of the opposite task in mind before they switched to it. In contrast, in the Same task, children had no reason to represent the other’s task as both participants shared the same task, thus the opposite task is novel, therefore they experienced more switch costs. The results in pre-switch part replicated the results in experiment 1 and children had less switch costs in the Different task compared with the Same task condition. It meant that the interference children experienced in Different condition was really from co-representation of their own and partner’s task. In general, 3 years old children could not co-represent partner’s task and experience interference in joint task, while 4 and 5 years old children had the ability to co-represent their own and partner’s task in joint actions. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Iconicity and Sign Language Learning Experience on the Cross-modal Semantic Priming between Chinese Sign Language and Chinese 2021, (1): 67-73.  Abstract ( )   Semantic priming is the effect that the activation of meaning can spread to the neighboring nodes. A large number of studies have confirmed the effect within certain language (e.g., Hernandez et al. 1996；Heyman et al. 2016；Kootstra & Muysken 2017) and across different languages (e.g., Ferré et al. 2015). Recent research has extended semantic priming effect to the cross-modal level. Results from those studies indicate meaning can spread between language and gesture system (e.g., Kelly et al. 2004; Yap et al. 2011), which is attributed to the iconic feature of gesture. Sign language, as a natural language, bears both iconicity and symbolicity. However, few studies examined the semantic priming effect between spoken language and sign language. In addition, some researchers started to pay attention to the modulating role of L2 proficiency in semantic priming (e.g., Nakayama et al. 2016). Therefore, the current study investigated semantic priming effect in Chinese monolinguals and Chinese-Chinese sign language (CSL) bilinguals. In the experiment, a word judgment task was used to investigate the semantic priming effect between Chinese and CSL. Participants were asked to watch a video clip of a hand gesture of a CSL sign, and then judge if a target word is a real Chinese word or a fake one. Due to the material type that half of the CSL signs are iconic and half of the real words are semantically related to CSL signs, if there exists cross-modal semantic priming effect participants’ judging behavior would be different according to different characteristics of signs and words. Thus, a measure of cross-modal semantic priming effect can be computed by comparing the mean judgment RT for the real Chinese words semantically related or irrelated to CSL signs. Experiment results showed that in the trials of iconic signs, both L2 CSL signers and Chinese monolinguals judged semantically related words more efficiently than semantically irrelated words. However, in trails of symbolic signs, only L2 CSL signers judged semantically related words more efficiently than irrelated words. Chinese monolinguals judged the two types of words with no significant difference. The results indicate that there exists cross-modal semantic priming effect, but the effect is modulated by sign iconicity and L2 CSL proficiency. Chinese-CSL bilinguals may have constructed a Chinese lexicon system and a CSL lexicon system, but they share one conceptual system. Therefore, the meaning activation can spread across modal from CSL signs to Chinese words. However, Chinese monolinguals do not have CSL lexicon system. The cross-modal semantic priming effect of Chinese monolinguals relies on the visual similarity of iconic signs. Together, the results attribute the cross-modal semantic priming effect to the shared conceptual representation of Chinese and CSL. Iconic signs, like iconic gestures, can activate meaning for non-signers, but symbolic signs cannot. Related Articles | Metrics

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Over time-spend on Weibo which results form anxiety leads to worse anxiety——Effect of trait anxiety on adolescents' attention to emotional stimulation 2021, (1): 82-89.  Abstract ( )   Trait anxiety refers to individuals’ relatively stable tendency to anxiety and is an anxiogenic reaction to environmental threats. Studies have found that individuals with high trait anxiety have abnormal attention bias. In previous studies, the stimulus presentation time was set in advance, and the response time or accuracy of the subjects were recorded. The investigation of attention characteristics may have indirect speculation, and it is difficult to reflect the dynamic changes of attention characteristics of the same stimulus. In addition, few focus is given to stimuli other than threatening stimuli. In this experiment, the eye movement characteristics of adolescents with trait anxiety tendencies in free viewing of emotional face images were used as indicators to examine their attention characteristics when processing emotional stimuli. This experiment is a two-factor mixed experiment design. The independent variables were interpersonal factor trait anxiety (high trait anxiety vs. low trait anxiety) and internal factor emotional properties (happy vs. fear vs. anger vs. neutral). The dependent variable was the subject’s eye movement index, including the time to first fixation (TFF), the first fixation duration (TFD), the fixation counts (FC), and the average fixation duration (AFD) of the subjects in the area of interest (AOI). The results showed that subjects in the high anxiety group had faster arrived time on anger and fear faces for first fixation and the shorter first fixation duration, while slower arrived time on happy faces for first fixation and the shorter first fixation duration. After 1000ms of stimulation presenting, they stared more at the anger and fear faces, the average duration of fixation was shorter. While the fixation number on happy face was smaller, and the average duration of fixation was longer. In the low trait anxiety group, although the arrival time of the first fixation of anger and fear faces was earlier than that of calm faces, the difference between them was not significant; the first time to happy faces arrived faster and the first fixation lasted longer. They had fewer fixation counts on anger and fear faces, the average duration of fixation was longer; the counts of fixation on happy faces was more, and the average fixation duration was shorter. This indicates that in the early stage of cognitive processing, adolescents with high trait anxiety tend to threatening stimuli existed with attention-oriented facilitated. They do not have difficulties in attention disengagement. The processing mode presented a phenomenon of “slightly tasted”. Also they do have attention avoidance to positive stimuli. Adolescents with low trait anxiety tend not to show obvious attention bias to threatening stimuli, and attention characteristics to positive stimuli are biased in the early stage. In the late stage of cognitive processing, adolescents with high trait anxiety tend to “ruminate” in cognitive processing on threat stimuli, and the attention characteristics of positive stimuli still exist. Adolescents with low trait anxiety tend to avoid attention to negative stimuli, and maintain attention to positive stimuli. Related Articles | Metrics

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Stress and Sleep Quality Among Undergraduate Students: Chain Mediating Effects of Rumination and Resilience Dan Zhang Xue-Qing HU Liu qinxue 2021, (1): 90-96.  Abstract ( )   As the rapid development of diversified society puts forward higher requirements for people's adaptation, the stress and its detrimental effects on undergraduate students' physical?and?mental?health have received substantial attention. A large body of research has documented the negative association between stress and people’s sleep quality. The present study aimed to examine the relationship between stress and sleep quality among undergraduate students. Determining the roles of mediators in the relationship between stress and ' sleep quality among undergraduate students will be important to provide guidance for interventions to improve sleep quality. Response style theory points out that rumination refers to the tendency of the spontaneous and repeated thinking of negative events after experiencing stressful events.And there are substantial evidence that rumination is negatively correlated with sleep quality. The present study hypothesizes that rumination may play a mediating role between stress and sleep quality. In addition, Theoretical model of stress cognition believes that individuals in the stress context will reduce their ability to cope with stress and thus show reduced mental resilience. Moreover, studies have confirmed a significant positive relationship between mental resilience and sleep quality. So the present study hypothesizes that resilience may play a mediating role between stress and sleep quality. Meanwhile, studies showed that rumination could directly and negatively predict mental resilience. So the present study hypothesizes that rumination and mental toughness play a chain mediating role between stress and sleep quality. In a word, The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that rumination and resilience mediated stress to sleep quality and further develop the mechanism of stress to sleep quality among undergraduate students. The present study selected 684 undergraduate students((mean age = 20.26 years, SD = 1.08 ) from Wuhan, Jinan and Chengdu, who participated in this study and adopted Resilience Scale for Chinese Adolescents, Ruminative Responses Scale, Stress Scale for College Student and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index.The present study first calculated the descriptive statistics for the variables, then processed the associations among these variables in the SPSS 22.0 software, and finally conducted a follow-up structural equation modeling (SEM) using AMOS21.0. The result shows:(1) common method biases can be accepted in this study, and the correlation among stress, resilience, rumination and sleep quality are all significant; (2)stress, rumination, and resilience can all predict sleep quality significantly.(3)structural equation modeling indicates good fit : χ2=244.23, df=76, χ2/df=3.21, CFI=0.95, NFI=0.93, IFI=0.95, TLI=0.93, RMSEA=0.06. It shows that rumination and resilience can play mediating roles between stress and sleep quality respectively and rumination and resilience play the chain mediating effect in the relationship between stress and sleep quality. The mediating effect of rumination in the relationship between stress and sleep quality is 27%; The mediating effect of resilience in the relationship between stress and sleep quality is 26%; The chain mediating effect of rumination and resilience in the relationship between stress and sleep quality is 25%. In conclusion, stress not only has a direct effect on sleep quality among undergraduate students but also influences sleep quality by the chain mediating effect of rumination and resilience. This study also finds that the factor loading of sleep time, hypnotic drugs and sleep efficiency on sleep quality is less than 0.3, which is related to the life characteristics of contemporary undergraduate students.And the present study suggests researchers to do confirmatory factor analysis of Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index before data analysis for the entire study. These findings in the present study contribute to understanding the mechanisms underlying the association between stress and sleep quality among undergraduate students and have important implications for interventions aimed at improving sleep quality among undergraduate students. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Trait Gratitude and State Gratitude on Cooperation Level of Junior High School Students 2021, (1): 97-103.  Abstract ( )   Junior high school is an important period for the development of teenagers, and it is also a key period for their moral development. Gratitude and cooperation. As two positive elements of psychological development, are essential to the formation of good character, sound personality, and individual socialization of middle school students. This study uses the method of tracking surveys and experiments to explore the effect of gratitude on the cooperation level of junior high school students. The first study explored the development characteristics of trait gratitude and cooperative tendency and the relationship between them.677 first-grade junior high school students in Suzhou were selected to carry out three follow-up surveys by using "gratitude questionnaire for Junior High School Students" and "Cooperation Tendency Questionnaire".The results showed the following: (1) The overall traits of gratitude and character orientation gratitude of girls are significantly higher than that of boys; (2)The overall level of cooperation tendency is high, and there is no significant difference in gender between the overall cooperation tendency and various dimensions of cooperation , but the difference is significant in time. T2's cooperation propensity level is significantly lower than T1 and T3's cooperation propensity levels; (3) The level of three times of trait gratitude and three times of cooperation tendency of junior high school students were significantly positively correlated with different test times. The trait gratitude of junior high school students can significantly and stably predict individual cooperative tendency. The second study explored the effect of state gratitude on cooperative behavior in the public goods dilemma. In this study, 112 students in a middle school in Shanghai were selected as the research subjects (64 in the experimental group and 48 in the control group). After measuring the initial level of trait gratitude using the junior high school students’ gratitude questionnaire, the subjects were randomly divided into two groups. The experimental group aroused state gratitude by reading gratitude stories and recalling gratitude experiences, and the control group aroused theirs by reading geographic expository text and recalling classroom layout. After taking the emotional manipulation test, each group of four participants conducted six rounds of simulation investment game experiment of the public goods dilemma paradigm. The results showed the following: (1) The level of gratitude and positive emotion in the experimental group was significantly higher than that in the control group, but there was no significant difference between the two groups；(2) The level of cooperative behavior in the simulation investment game in the experimental group was significantly higher than that in the control group; that is to say, the state gratitude of junior high school students can promote their cooperative behavior in the public goods dilemma. In other words, whether it is internal or external, the gratitude of junior high school students can play a positive role in promoting their cooperation level. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Relationship between College Students’ Self-esteem and Wechat Addiction: The Multiple Mediating Roles of State Anxiety and Internet Interpersonal Trust 2021, (1): 104-110.  Abstract ( )   Abstract In recent years, Wechat has gradually become the most popular social tool for Chinese teenagers and young adults. Similar to Facebook addiction in Western countries, excessive use of Wechat can also lead to Wechat addiction. Many studies have shown that addiction to social media harms adolescents’ physical and mental health. Furthermore, social media addiction is a threat to students’ academic performance. Therefore, it is necessary to pay attention to the negative effects of Wechat addiction on adolescents. Previous researchers have suggested that there is a correlation between self-esteem and social media addiction. However, the underlying mechanism deserves further exploration. Previous studies have also shown that self-esteem can predict interpersonal trust, and interpersonal trust is related to addiction behavior. Since we focus on the Internet world, we assume that online interpersonal trust can mediate the relationship between self-esteem and Wechat addiction. Anxiety has also been proved to mediate the relationship between interpersonal trust and addiction behavior. At the same time, we also found that anxiety is related to self-esteem and addiction behavior. Based on these results, we speculated that anxiety may be another mediating variable between self-esteem and Wechat addiction, and then anxiety and Internet interpersonal trust are constituted a serial multiple mediation mechanism between self-esteem and Wechat addiction. Therefore, this study attempts to explore the underlying mechanism between self-esteem and Wechat addiction. 931 college school students were selected as samples, of which 300 were male and 376 were female, with an average age of 19.59. The questionnaires included the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (RSES), Wechat Addiction Scale, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), Online Interpersonal Trust Scale (OIT). Data were analyzed with SPSS 23 and Mplus7.4, and the bias-corrected percentile bootstrap method was used to analyze the mediating role of online interpersonal trust and anxiety between self-esteem and Wechat addiction of college students. Harman’s one-factor test showed that there is no serious common method bias in this study. The results indicated that: (1) There is a significant negative correlation between self-esteem and state anxiety and WeChat addiction, but no significant correlation with online interpersonal trust. State anxiety was positively correlated with WeChat addiction and online interpersonal trust. Online interpersonal trust was positively correlated with WeChat addiction. (2) Anxiety mediated the relationship between self-esteem and Wechat addiction; (3) As mediating variables, anxiety and online interpersonal trust constitute a serial two-mediator model with self-esteem and Wechat addiction. The results show that self-esteem can predict Wechat addiction directly and negatively, and also influence addiction through state anxiety and interpersonal trust indirectly. Our research has contributed to the description of the mechanism of Wechat addiction by self-esteem. These findings suggest that school teachers and parents should pay more attention to teenagers' self-esteem and interpersonal relationship especially in the network environment, and give correct guidance to avoid anxiety and WeChat addiction caused by low self-esteem. Related Articles | Metrics

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How Does Deep Acting Weaken the Negative Impact of Abusive Supervision on Employee Voice? A Method to Deal with Abuse 2021, (1): 111-117.  Abstract ( )   The current research majorly explores the methods which can be used to weaken the adverse impact of abusive supervision on employee in terms of organization, team and leadership, while few studies explore this impact from the perspective of employees’ cognition regulation. Based on the theory of cognitive dissonance, the hypothesis put forward in this research is that the emotional labor strategy of deep acting may make contributions to weakening the adverse impacts of abusive supervision on employees’ interactional justice. By deep acting (including positive refocus and perspective taking), the employees could genuinely reach the private acceptance of supervisors’ abuse, reducing their self-esteem threatening. Meanwhile, as the decreased interactional justice can directly affect the voice motivation of the employees, this paper further hypotheses that the interaction between deep acting and abusive supervision has an impact on the employees' voice (including both defensive voice and prosocial voice) through the mediation of interactional justice. To verify the above hypotheses, some surveys are carried out at 3 time points in a state-owned enterprise. At time point 1, the survey conducted a test to the perception of abusive supervision and deep acting (when encountering rude treating from the supervisors) on 623 invited members in 127 teams. At time point 2, which is 2 months after time point 1, 552 members rated their perception of interactional justice. Then, 4 months after time point 1, 109 team leaders rated the defensive voice and prosocial voice of their subordinates. The final matched sample is composed of 530 members from a total of 103 teams, with a response rate of 85.07% for all the individuals. In the results, the hypotheses put forward in this study are all verified. (1)The result of moderated regression analysis suggests that deep acting can do a favor in weakening the negative connection between abusive supervision and interactional justice (B= .18，p＜.001). (2) The bootstrapping approach (2000 resamples) in Mplus 8.0 is further employed, which shows that the interaction between deep acting and abusive supervision has significant indirect effects (through the mediator, interactional justice) on both defensive voice (ind1=-.03, 95% CI = [-.06, -.01], excluding zero) and prosocial voice (ind2=.02, 95% CI = [.01, .04], excluding zero). Possible contributions of this research are as follows: firstly, it has broadened the perspective of response to abusive supervision. In the face of adverse effects caused by abuse, most existing studies only provide the correction thinking from “top-down” to respond to it, and regard employees as powerless to resist. However, from the conclusion of this study, it can be seen that employees are not totally negative in facing abuse. This paper takes “active acting to cognitive dissonance” as a breakthrough, and provides the way to turn passive into positive from the perspective of response. Secondly, it has advanced the research on the relationship between abusive supervision and voice. At present, studies generally believed that the relationship between them is negative. This study reveals that the interaction between deep acting and abusive supervision will improve the adverse effect of voice through interactional justice; and has found that this effect will have different results on different types of voice. Finally, it has verified the effect of deep acting and enriched the positive effect of emotional labor. It is known that study on emotional labor originated from scholars’ concern about its “dark side”. This paper proves the interactive effect of “deep acting strategy” and “abusive supervision”, which has a reduction effect on the negative impact of employees’ interactional justice and subsequent voice, and highlights the effectiveness of this strategy and the “positive side” of emotional labor. Related Articles | Metrics

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Implicit Stereotype of Social Hierarchy: The Role of Power and Status 2021, (1): 118-125.  Abstract ( )   As the psychological representation of social groups, previous studies on stereotypes mainly divided social groups from race, gender and age. With the rapid development of economy, the gap between the rich and the poor is particularly prominent. Social hierarchy has become an important clue of group classification, and its implicit stereotype has a significant impact on interpersonal communication. Social hierarchy has two dimensions of power and status. However, most previous studies have unilaterally investigated the stereotype of social hierarchy from the perspective of power or status, and their conclusions are still not consistent, which may ignore the different roles of power and status in stereotypes. Therefore, this study aims to comprehensively investigate the content of implicit stereotypes of social hierarchy. This experiment adopted probe recognition paradigm. In this experiment, behavioral sentences that implied a trait were presented first, followed by trait words and participants were asked to judge whether trait words had ever appeared in behavioral sentences. It was easy for the subjects to deduce the corresponding trait spontaneously when they see the behavior sentences. When the detection words are consistent with the trait of the subjects' inferring, the concept of spontaneous activation of the trait interfered with the recognition. Therefore, when the subjects needed a longer reaction, they can judge that the detection words have not appeared. In addition, since stereotypes promote spontaneous trait inference, and vice versa, this study compared the response time differences between value under the same actor condition. The longer the response time, the more likely the trait is to be consistent with the actor's stereotype. Experiment 1 manipulated targets in occupations that differ in power and status, which was designed a 2(power: high, low) × 2(status: high, low) ×2(value: positive, negative) within?subject study. Experiment 2 manipulated the power and status of fictional characters and conducted a mixed design study at the same time. The dependent variable was the response time of the trait words of warmth and competence respectively. For the repeated measure ANOVA of the response time for the traits of competence or warmth, the results of experiments 1 and 2 showed as follows. On the stereotype of competence, regardless of status, individuals' positive responses to high?power group inference were significantly longer than negative responses to low?power group inference. And for the trait inference of warmth, regardless of power, individuals were significantly longer when they had a positive response to high?status groups than when they had a negative response to low?status groups. In summary, the present study demonstrated that, power and status played different roles in the stereotypes of warmth and competence dimensions, in which power positively predicted competence and status positively predicted warmth. This study proposed a social hierarchy implicit stereotype content model, highlighting the separation of power and status at the implicit level in the stereotype of competence and warmth. Understanding implicit stereotypes would help an actor to establish or change others' impression on him, namely, impression management, which was also an effective strategy to obtain social recognition or maintain social identity. Related Articles | Metrics

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Childhood socioeconomic status, life history strategy and consumptions: China traditional values of “unity and harmony” as moderator. Yun-Zhong KONG Sun ShijinShijin 2021, (1): 126-133.  Abstract ( )   Due to the rapid development of China Reform and Opening-up for 40 years, and the impact of strong collision between eastern and western cultures, the consumption behavior of contemporary Chinese people presents diversity and complexity. Currently, most of existing research about consumption behavior is based on proximate level, but life history theory from evolutionary psychology is based on ultimate level to trace back to individual childhood, so it helps to explore deeper causes of behaviors. This study is to explore the causes and influence mechanism of two typical consumption behaviors of contemporary Chinese people: green consumption and conspicuous consumption from the perspective of life history theory in evolutionary psychology. In the first step, formal questionnaire was confirmed after the analysis about the data of 247 samples collected by pre survey, then 1028 valid samples data were collected by formal survey in 8 large or medium-sized cities in China during Aug. to Oct. 2019. In the second step, analyzed the data with multi-step analysis strategy. Firstly, established multi-dimensional regression analysis equation model to investigate the influence of multiple independent variables and control variables on two typical consumption; secondly, explored how the interaction between individual adult life history strategy, China traditional values of“unity and harmony”and childhood socioeconomic status (SES) affects the consumption. We introduced mediating variable and moderating variable step by step to test whether the life history strategy and China traditional values play a mediation and a moderator role. The results showed that: (1) childhood SES has a significant impact on individual consumption behaviors in adulthood. If the individual childhood SES is higher, the level of green consumption is higher and the level of conspicuous consumption is lower no matter what the current SES is in adulthood. (2) Life history strategy plays a full mediation role between childhood SES and green consumption, and a part of mediation role between childhood SES and conspicuous consumption. (3) If the level of individual traditional values of “unity and harmony” is higher, the level of green consumption is higher and the level of conspicuous consumption is lower; “Unity and harmony” plays a moderator role in the process of life history strategy affecting green consumption and in the process of childhood SES affecting conspicuous consumption. The study is helpful to understand the deeper reasons of consumption of contemporary Chinese people from the perspective of life history strategy and values. It can be a reference for the public to cultivate healthy and rational consumption. Furthermore, it confirmed the impact of China traditional values of “unity and harmony” on consumption. China traditional values emphasize self-transcendence and the restriction of desire with the help of moral power. It does not form a fundamental opposition with the material civilization. Therefore, the influence of China traditional values on consumption shows more complexity. In the future, we should further analyze the influence from China traditional values on consumption. Limited by time and resources, there are some shortcomings in this study. Firstly, because of using retrospective method, samples may be affected by current subjective feelings or social expectations; secondly, the subjective survey data cannot accurately reflect the objective consumption behaviors; thirdly, conspicuous consumption and green consumption are only two typical consumption behaviors of individuals. In the future, we suggest to use more rigorous methods in data collection; design psychological behavior experiments to accurately grasp consumption behaviors; study different consumption behaviors, such as impulsive consumption, online consumption, etc. Related Articles | Metrics

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Does Perceived Ease of Use Affect Intention to Use of Virtual Goods in Online Games? The Role of Perceived Usefulness and Neuroticism of Player 2021, (1): 134-140.  Abstract ( )   Nowadays, virtual goods have become a new category of online consumption, which is an important revenue for online game corporations. Although the new economy has emerged in the virtual world, little is known about the underlying mechanism that influences people’s intention to use virtual goods. According to the technology acceptance mode, both perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness are determinants of user behavior. And the influence of perceived ease of use on user’s behavior intention is partly through perceived usefulness. This theoretical mediation effect has been proved by empirical studies focusing on virtual reality simulation and social virtual world. Therefore, this study hypothesized that perceived usefulness could mediate the link between perceived ease of use and intention to use of virtual goods. In addition, the feeling of control and positive emotion deriving from using of virtual goods in online games are important reasons for player to use virtual goods. It is more likely for players high in feeling of control to display interest and continuous attention in activities. And the positive feeling is a reinforcement to keep player continuous participation. But players high in neuroticism are inclined to be in negative mood and less likely to experience feelings of control. Hence, the usefulness of virtual goods may not be that attractive for them. Therefore, this study further hypothesized that neuroticism of player could moderate the relationship between perceived usefulness and intention to use of virtual goods. To test the hypotheses, the present study constructed a moderated mediation model to examine the effect of perceived ease of use on intention to use of virtual goods for undergraduates. Specifically, the present study examined the mediating role of perceived usefulness in the relation between perceived ease of use and intention to use of virtual goods, and tested whether the indirect effect was moderated by neuroticism of player. A sample of 559 undergraduate students completed a battery of self-report questionnaires measuring their perceived ease of use, intention to use, perceived usefulness of virtual goods as well as neuroticism of player. All the measures were reliable in this study. Data were analyzed by SPSS 22.0 and the SPSS macro PROCESS. The results were as follows:(1) Perceived ease of use was positively correlated with perceived usefulness and intention to use, and perceived usefulness was also positively correlated with intention to use.(2) Perceived ease of use significantly exerted a direct effect on intention to use; and there was an indirect effect on intention to use through the mediation of perceived usefulness as well.(3) The indirect effect of perceived usefulness was moderated by neuroticism of the player, and the effect was stronger for player lower in neuroticism. The study highlighted the mediating role of perceived usefulness and the moderating role of neuroticism of the player in the effect of perceived ease of use on intention to use virtual goods. It contributes to a better understanding of the effects as well as its paths and conditions of perceived ease of use on intention to use of virtual goods among undergraduates. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Sex Ratio and Childhood Economic Condition on Female Long-term and Short-term Mating Preferences 2021, (1): 141-147.  Abstract ( )   Many efforts have been made by existing literature on the characteristics of female mating preferences, such as the dimensions of female mating preferences and the priorities of different preferences during various mating situations. However, little has been known whether and why the female mating preferences would change according to environmental and social factors. Life history theory implies that human life history strategies would vary because of environmental conditions, including the preferences for choosing a mate. Based on previous literature, the current study is mainly focused on how sex ratio (current environmental clue) and childhood economic condition would influence women’s mating preferences. Two experiments were conducted to explore the hypothesized relationship among female mating preferences, sex ratio, and childhood economic condition. In experiment 1, 76 unmarried female participants with an average age of 20.25(SD=2.47) years old were recruited. Participants were divided into two groups randomly. Firstly, they filled the items on their demographic information and childhood economic background. Then they were required to imagine the situation of “more female less male” or “more male less female” and write an article of about 400 words to describe the situation in detail. After that the participants rated the mate preference items. The results in experiment 1 showed that females tend to demand more on their preferences for “good father” and “good resource” in long-term mating situations, and demand more for “good genes” in short-term mating situations. What is more, the interaction effect between sex ratio and childhood economic condition on female preference for “good partner” was significant in long-term mating situation. For those who had a higher level of childhood economic condition, the preferences for “good father” qualities would hardly be influenced by sex ratio; However, for those who had a relatively lower level of childhood economic condition, their preferences for “good father” qualities varied according to different sex ratio, in long-term mating situations. Participants with lower childhood economic condition showed significantly higher level of long-term preferences for “good father” qualities when primed by a higher sex ratio scenario (more men) than a lower sex ratio scenario (more women). The main effects of sex ratio priming on long-term “good partner” preferences were also significant. In study 2, 103 unmarried female participants with an average age of 18.81(SD=0.89) years old were recruited. Firstly, all the subjects were divided into two groups randomly. After filling with the demographic data subjects were required to watch carefully a series of 8 photo pictures with brief introductive information follow each picture. The series of pictures were used as the priming of unbalanced sex ratio with one including 6 male and 2 female photo pictures, and the other one including 6 female and 2 male pictures. Finally, participants rated the mating preference items. The results in experiment 2 were the similar as that in experiment 1. Conclusion: Both of the two experiments indicated that female mating preferences would vary according to environmental clues, and the influence patterns seem to be different among females with different childhood economic background. This study shed light on the field of mating preferences from the perspective of evolutionary psychology. Related Articles | Metrics

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How peer characteristics affect people's cooperation and conflict behavior？ 2021, (1): 148-154.  Abstract ( )   In real life, people always interact with persons of different characteristics. The result of social interaction not only depends on the characteristics of the individual itself, but also is affected by another participant. People can form a social perception of another person according to his/her moral choice or judgment, they also will actively perceive the behavior tendency of strange opponent in the previous interaction, and then use the information of peers to predict the future behavior of their peers.This study will investigate cooperative behavior of individuals which interact with opponents of different characteristics. People may change their own interactive strategy according to the moral tendency(deontology or consequentialism) and behavior pattern of others. This study will show the opponents' moral orientation (deontology and consequentialism) before the game, or by setting up the cooperative type (cooperative or competitive) of the opponents in the interaction. This study assumes that when individuals perceived that opponents are more competitive than themselves, people Will rationally choose cooperation to avoid more losses, and in the face of relatively cooperative opponents, will choose more aggression to make their own greater benefits. Individuals will not only form a certain social perception of their peers according to the game situation in all previous rounds, and use this information to determine the choice of the current round, but may also determine the choice of their current round according to the results of the recent, that is, the last round.The influence about outcome of previous round to current round will be concerned. In this study, two between-participants Chicken Game were designed to investigate this issue. In this study, participants will play the games with different "opponents" and maximize their own gains. In Experiment 1, the participants first perceived the opponent as deontology or consequentialism through the opponent's answer about the moral dilemma, and then carried out Chicken Game, the opponent’s decisions were randomly predetermined by a series of equally-probable cooperation and aggression decisions. In Experiment 2, the participants perceived the characteristics of the opponents as cooperative(randomly predetermined by a series of 80%-probable cooperation) or competitive (randomly predetermined by a series of 20%-probable cooperation) in the first half of the experiment through 50 rounds of interaction with the opponent, while the cooperation rate of the opponent returned to 50% in the latter part of the Experiment 2. The results indicated that: (1) There is no significant difference in the cooperation rate between the deontology group and consequentialism group, and there is no significant difference in the cooperation rate between the competitive group and the cooperative group. (2) When interacting with the deontology and the cooperative opponent, the behavior of the participants is not significantly affected by the result of the previous trial. (3) When the opponent is consequentialism, compared with individual chooses to cooperate and the opponent chooses to aggressive in the previous trial, when both players chose to cooperate, the participants were more tended to cooperate in the current trial. (4) In the competitive group, when both player choose to cooperate, the participants were more inclined to cooperate compared to the previous individual choice of aggression and the opponent chooses to cooperate. Related Articles | Metrics

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This is not the job I imagined! The Impact of Illegitimate Tasks on Newcomers’ Work Engagement 2021, (1): 155-161.  Abstract ( )   Illegitimate tasks are assigned work tasks that violate the boundary of what can be appropriately expected by an employee. It comprises unreasonable and unnecessary tasks. The former refers to tasks that are perceived out of scope of employee’s professional work role. The latter refers to tasks that employees don’t need to do at all, as it causes unnecessary effort, wastes time, and makes the organization inefficient. Previous studies found that illegitimate tasks negatively impact on organizations and employees. However, we believe that added insight can be provided by investigating newcomers’ work engagement as an additional outcome. Drawing on an overarching framework of Cognitive Appraisal Theory of Emotion, this study developed a model of illegitimate tasks that explicates the affective mechanisms through which illegitimate tasks associated with negative work engagement. We hypothesized that the experience of illegitimate task predicts newcomers’ high unpleasant feeling, as illegitimate tasks threaten newcomers’ role identity and indicate the disrespect signal of newcomers’ professional role as well as hinder the achievement of employee goals. Moreover, the unpleasant feeling in turn predicts poor work engagement, because when experiencing negative emotion, newcomers tend to promote avoidance tendency or protective strategies, such as reducing physical, cognitive and emotional investment at work. In addition, we further predicted that growth theories of work would moderate the relationship between illegitimate task and unpleasant feeling, because newcomers who have high growth theories tend to consider illegitimate task as challenge and opportunities for learning, which will reduce the unpleasant feeling. Seventy-one participants filled out between-level survey and subsequently completed daily dairy questionnaires for one week （5 work days). Multilevel modeling was used to test primary hypotheses. Result indicate that （1) illegitimate task increases unpleasant feeling in new employees. （2) unpleasant feeling mediates the effects of illegitimate task on newcomers’ work engagement. （3) growth theories of work moderates the positive relationship between illegitimate tasks and unpleasant feeling. Specifically, high growth theories of work will decrease the unpleasant feeling caused by illegitimate tasks. This study has several theoretical implications. First, we focus on newcomer and reveals that suffering illegitimate tasks will have a negative impact on newcomers’ work engagement, which further indicates employees' self-protection strategy on coping illegitimate tasks. What’s more, the discussion of unpleasant feeling, a kind of compound emotion, further enrich the affective mechanisms of illegitimate tasks research. In addition, employees’ implicit beliefs such as growth theories of work can buffer unpleasant feelings caused by non-compliant tasks, and this conclusion further expands the boundary mechanism between illegitimate tasks and employees’ affect. The conclusion of this research also provides inspiration for how organizational managers interfere with the negative impact of illegitimate tasks on newcomers. Finally, this research points out some limitations and offer some suggestions for further research, for example, would illegitimate tasks induce more employee voice behavior? could conscientiousness buffer the negative impact of illegitimate tasks on work outcomes? Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Media Image Internalization on College Students’ Restrained Eating:A Moderated Mediation Model 2021, (1): 162-168.  Abstract ( )   In recent decades, restrained eating has become an important issue in the study of eating disorders and obesity. Restrained eating (RE) refers to intentional, sustained restriction of caloric intake to lose or maintain body weight. Some studies have shown that college students belong to the high incidence of restrained eating behavior. Restrained eating behavior would lead to low self-esteem, anxiety, depression, and even suicide in, which seriously affects the physical and mental health of college students. Therefore, researchers believe that it is necessary to discuss the intrinsic mechanism of college students' restrained eating behavior, so as to provide theoretical support for the prevention and intervention strategies of college students' restrained eating behavior, and to reduce the negative effects of restrained eating behavior. Studies have shown that media image is an important predictor of restrained eating behavior, but its mechanism needs to be further studied.Firstly, based on the tripartite influence model, media image internalization might be a potential facilitator of restrained eating behavior. Secondly, according to objectification theory, media image internalization was associated with self-objectification, which in turn was associated with restrained eating behaviors. Self-objectification is characterized as regarding oneself as an object or collection of body parts. It could be hypothesized that self-objectification would mediate the relationship between media image internalization and restrained eating behaviors. Self-compassion is an emotionally positive self attitude. According to Neff, self-compassion might have had a potential influence on the associations. In order to explore the influence of media image internalization of restrained eating and its mechanism of action, we constructed a moderated mediation model to examine mediating effect of self-objectification and moderating role of self-compassion. Some 600 college school students were selected as samples, of which 216 were male and 307 were female, with an average age of 20.18.The questionnaires included the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Scale-3 (SATAQ-3), Self-Objectification Questionnaire (SOQ), Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire (DEBQ), and Self-Compassion Scale (SCS). Data were collected and analyzed with SPSS 24.0 and Mplus 8.3, and the bias-corrected percentile bootstrap method was used to analyze the role of self-objectification and self-compassion between media image internalization and college restrained eating behavior. An exploratory factor analysis was calculated to test the common method variance. Results showed that the study was in-existent common method variance. The results indicated that: (1) media image internalization was positively correlated with self-objectification and restrained eating behavior, and self-objectification was also positively correlated with restrained eating behavior. The correlation coefficient ranged from. 21 to.29(p<.01). (2) The structural equation model revealed that the data fit the theoretical model well (2/df=.33，CFI=1，TLI=1，SRMR=.01，RMSEA=0). (3) media image internalization had a significant direct effect on restrained eating behavior (β=.25, p<.01); media image internalization had a significant direct impact on self-objectification (β=.25, p<.01); self-objectification had a significant direct effect of restrained eating behavior (β=.15, p<.01); self-compassion had no significant direct effect on restrained eating behavior (β=-.03, p>.05); interaction had a significant direct effect on restrained eating behavior (β=-.13, p<.01). (4) The indirect effect of media image internalization on restrained eating behavior was caused by self-objectification. (5) Self-compassion moderated the relationship between media image internalization and restrained eating behavior. At low levels of self-compassion, there was a significant positive relationship between media image internalization and self-objectification. However, at high levels of self-compassion, there was a non-significant relationship between media image internalization and self-objectification. It is concluded that in the structural equation model of media image internalization on restrained eating behavior of college school students, self-objectification plays a partial mediation role and self-compassion moderates the indirect effect. Related Articles | Metrics

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Generation Mechanism of Belief in Conspiracy Theories: Three Explanations from Social Cognitive Perspective Jia-Yan MAO Shen-Long YANG 2021, (1): 169-176.  Abstract ( )   Social psychology treats conspiracy theories as an ideological belief which is defined as people’s tendency to interpret major social and political events as powerful groups or individuals who secretly deliberately plan to achieve their intended purpose. Belief in conspiracy theories is not just about believing in a specific conspiracy theory, but a general belief in all kinds of conspiracy theories. The following two findings in previous studies are sufficient to prove this point: one is the strong correlation between beliefs about the conspiracy theories behind different events; the other is that people may simultaneously embrace contradictory conspiracy theories about the same event. These two findings also indicate that belief in conspiracy theories is an integral and coherent psychological structure, which can be included into the category of psychological research as an independent variable. The negative influence of conspiracy theories is greater than the positive influence has become the consensus of researchers. To make a reasonable intervention in belief in conspiracy theories, we must first clarify the mechanism it generates. Previous studies have attempted to explain why people choose to believe in conspiracy theories from different perspectives. The results of studies on the relationship between belief in conspiracy theories and the Big Five personality are often difficult to replicate, so it seems that belief in conspiracy theories cannot be simply described by the Big Five personality dimensions. From the perspective of motivation, cognitive motives of reducing cognitive uncertainty and understanding the external world, existential motives of avoiding external threats and enhancing the sense of control and security, social motives of maintaining the positive image of competence and morality of individuals and inner groups can induce individuals to generate belief in conspiracy theories. Compared with other research perspectives, the perspective of social cognition seems to better reflect the internal psychological process of forming an ideological belief. This paper mainly introduces three explanations for the emergence of individual’s belief in conspiracy theories from the perspective of social cognition. Illusory pattern perception leads to people's cognitive tendency to establish connections between unrelated events and even impose causal relationships to generate belief in conspiracy theories. Hypersensitive agency detection affects people to look for the agency in the environment, and even over-perceive and assume the agency, purpose and intention behind the event, thus generating belief in conspiracy theories. Projection s people to infer the thoughts and behaviors of others in the event based on their own understanding and knowledge, and project their self-perception of "I am willing to participate in this event" onto others, thus promoting the belief in conspiracy theories that "others really plotted this event”. Although these three factors have corresponding theoretical and empirical support and have certain explanatory power for the generation of belief in conspiracy theories, it is difficult to explain that any of them are independent of other psychological mechanisms and independently generate belief in conspiracy theories. In the future study, it is suggested to combine social cognition, motivation, personality and other research perspectives, attach importance to experimental design and vertical research, expand the group of subjects, broaden measurement methods, and carry out cross-perspective, interdisciplinary and cross-cultural in-depth and systematic research on the generation mechanism of belief in conspiracy theories. Related Articles | Metrics

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The influence of background music on consumers: From the perspective of musical fit Feng *Yu Shen-Long YANG 2021, (1): 177-183.  Abstract ( )   Musical fit refers to the fit degree of background music with advertising, consumption environment, and goods' features, which reflects the interaction effect between background music and these commercial elements. Although much is known about the effects of single commercial element, their combined effects are less obvious due to a wide range of interactions of people's perception of multiple commercial elements. The interaction effects between background music and other commercial elements has always been a controversial issue, and different or even opposite results have emerged in empirical studies. In contrast to previous studies that simply emphasized that preferred music promoted positive emotions, the perspective of musical fit emphasizes the music's power to convey information related to commercial elements. Relevancy and expectancy have been identified as key dimensions of fit. Relevancy reflects the extent to which stimulus information is helpful or harmful to clear identification of the target topic and its meaning. Expectation refers to the degree to which stimulus information is consistent with people's preexisting knowledge structures associated with a given topic. To this end, certain types of music may be useful for highly involved consumers who are more actively focused on and critically evaluate the sensory experience of consumption, and music perceived as a “fit” with other commercial elements may be more effective because it corresponds with the consumers' subjective perceptions and expectations of music’s relevance or appropriateness to the commercial elements. The fit between background music and commercial elements can be reflected in three aspects: music characteristics, social implications and cultural implications. Music characteristics of background music can reflect the characteristics of the music itself(including the music is sad or joyful, quiet or lively, light or heavy etc.), which is usually determined by the volume, rhythm, tempo, genre and other basic elements. Social implications of background music which is usually determined by the style of music (i.e., classical music, pop music, rock music, rap music, etc.) can reflect the high or low social status and whether the values are traditional or rebellious. Cultural implications of background music may reflect different countries, nationalities, religions and customs. These fit between background music and commercial elements have an impact on consumers’ congnition, emotion and behaviors. In terms of music characteristics, the high fit between background music and commercial elements can attract consumers' attention, help them form deeper memory of goods and promote consumers' willingness to buy. As for social implications, the fit determines consumers' attitude to brand, mood state, memory and choice of goods. When it comes to the culture implications, the high fit can produce a positive attitude towards brand, boost purchase intention and influence purchase behavior. Future study should explore the effect of more structural attributes of background music; seek the boundary conditions of the promotion effect of background music on consumers; break through the existing theories to explore a deeper theoretical mechanism; and explore the effect and mechanism of music fit on consumers' cognition and emotion. Related Articles | Metrics

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New Trends of Future Mental Time: Collective Future Thought 琪琪 郭 Hou-Chao LV 2021, (1): 184-190.  Abstract ( )   Collective future has been a subject of great concern in political science, communication science, sociology and other disciplines, but little is known about collective future thought in psychology -- that is, how individuals think about the future of a group. Individual future thought and collective future thought are separable and collective future thought can be studied as an independent field. The discussion of collective future thought is helpful to deepen the study of future psychological time and provide theoretical basis for the research of collective future. The paper aims to explain the concept of collective future thought, clarify the memory basis of collective future thought, and propose the possible direction of future researches. Firstly, the paper summarizes the concept of collective future thought, which literally means imagining a group event that has not yet happened. In this concept, imagination refers to the collective, imagined future events can be specific or schematic, and there are interactions between different groups. Like collective memory, collective future thought is a multiple and controversial process. The study of collective future thought is often based on collective memory. Therefore, to give a definition of collective future thought, starting from the perspective of collective memory is one of the methods. The two concepts related to collective memory, "future as after-thought" and "future as forethought", are used to define collective future thought. Meanwhile, these two concepts also constitute the complex interaction between collective memory and collective future thought in the collective context. Secondly, although no empirical study can directly prove the memory basis of collective future thought, it can be concluded from some related concepts and case analysis of patients with amnesia that the memory basis of collective future thought may related to semantic memory more closely. Firstly, previous studies have focused on episodic memory in individual mental time travel, while collective mental time travel is a psychological process involving more about semantic memory, so episodic memory has more influence on individual future thought, but semantic memory may play a greater role in collective future thought. Secondly, studies from neuropsychology and neuroimaging also prove that semantic memory is more closely related to collective future thought. Studies show that some amnesic patients have defects in episodic memory and episodic future thought, but their semantic memory is intact and they can imagine the future of the collective domain. Thirdly, hippocampus damage impairs the individual future thought, but the collective future thought ability remains intact, indicating that hippocampus doesn't play an important role in collective future thought. Meanwhile, non-hippocampal future scene construction exists and it may have an important relationship with collective future thought. There are many researches on the brain mechanism of collective future thought based on amnesic patients, but few researches on the brain mechanism of collective future thought in normal population. Finally, the paper puts forward the prospect of the future research of collective future thought. Firstly, more suitable experimental paradigms and measurement questionnaires should be developed. Secondly, future collective future thought should be based on Chinese culture. Finally, future studies can explore the brain mechanism of collective future thought in normal population. Related Articles | Metrics

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Impact of Loneliness and Social anxiety on Depression of Vulnerable Children: The Intermediary Role of Self-esteem 2021, (1): 191-196.  Abstract ( )   VVulnerable children refer to the children who temporarily or permanently are out of normal family, or physically or mentally encountered significant problems, including street children, orphans and AIDS children, disabled children, the fact no one raising children and others. Among them, the fact there is on one to bring up children is also called the fact on one raising children, contains about four sub-classes. The first sub-classes are that one of parents died, the other missed or abandoned children. The second is that both parents are in jail or during the rehabilitation, including that one of parents is in jail and the other abandoned children. The third is that both are severely disabled or ill. The fourth is that parents in poor families caught serious and rare diseases. Compared to general children, vulnerable children are more exposed to negative outcomes in life such as abuse, neglect and stigma. Consequently, vulnerable children are more susceptible to mental disorder such as anxiety, depression, and lower self-esteem. Although an association between childhood adversity and psychiatric disorders has been documented, most research has centered upon the types of adversities experience of orphans, AIDS children and disabled children. However, the studies about the mental development of fact no one raising children are limited in China. The object of current study was to explore the status, characteristics and relationship of vulnerable children`s loneliness, social anxiety, depression and self-esteem, and to investigate the mediating effect of self-esteem, provide the basis for the psychological assistance to vulnerable children. To achieve this goal, a survey was administered to 1733 vulnerable children aged from 4 to 18 years from 17 districts/counties in Chongqing city. The present study is a cross-sectional study, and data were collected from June to September 2016 as part of the impact evaluation of the Vulnerable Child Care Service Project in Chongqing .All participants were completed this survey that included the depression self-rating scale for Child (DSRSC), the children`s loneliness scale (CLS), the social anxiety?scale?for?children (SASC) and the self-esteem scale (SES).The data was analyzed with SPSS19.0 and Amos21.0.First, MANOVA was used to analyze the characteristics and interaction between gender and age of the participants’ level of depression, loneliness, social anxiety and self-esteem. Secondly, Spear-man correlation analysis was used to analysis the depression-loneliness relationship, the depression-social anxiety relationship, the depression-self-esteem relationship, the loneliness-social anxiety relationship, the loneliness-self-esteem relationship and the-social anxiety-self-esteem relationship. Finally, these six types’ relationships were used to test the mediating effect of self-esteem for relationships among social anxiety, loneliness and depression by structural equation modeling. The results as follow：(1) There were significant gender difference in depression, social anxiety and self-esteem (P<0.05), and significant age difference in depression, loneliness, social anxiety and self-esteem of vulnerable children (P<0.05). (2) The loneliness and social anxiety were significantly positive relevant to depression and could significantly predict it, self-esteem was significantly negative relevant to depression and could significantly predict it. (3) Structural equation modeling showed that the mediating effect of self-esteem was significant in the relationship between interpersonal disorder (loneliness and social anxiety) and depression. Not only could loneliness and social anxiety significantly predict depression, but it could also affect depression through the mediating role of self-esteem. These findings indicated that for vulnerable children, loneliness and social anxiety had effects on depression, and the effects are partially mediated by self-esteem. The findings provide external validity for mediation effect of self-esteem for the relationship between interpersonal disorder and depression, which can be used to improve the mental health of vulnerable children. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Relationship between Childhood Maltreatment and Loneliness: The Mediating Roles of Rumination and Core Self-Evaluation 2021, (1): 197-204.  Abstract ( )   Loneliness refers to a subjective feeling of isolation, accompanying the perception that one’s social needs are not being met by the quantity or the quality of one’s social relationships. Loneliness has become one of the most common mental health problems and has a range of negative impacts on individuals. In order to suppress the adverse effects of loneliness, it was important and urgent to investigate its potential causes. Prior studies focused mainly on negative events happened in childhood on loneliness, and their results showed that childhood maltreatment and loneliness in adulthood had a direct association. And previous literature had documented the important influence of both cognitive factors and personality factors on the relationship between childhood maltreatment and adults’ loneliness. However, our knowledge of the specific underlying mechanisms of how childhood maltreatment affected loneliness in adulthood was fairly limited. In order to address this research gap, the current study examined the relationship between childhood maltreatment and loneliness in adulthood. Specifically, drawing from response styles theory and attachment theory, we constructed a mediation model that childhood maltreatment affected loneliness in adulthood via cognitive (rumination) and personality (core self-evaluation) factors. We further investigated the chain mediating roles of both core self-evaluation and rumination in the model. Participants (M = 19.54, SD = 1.86) were 811 college students recruited randomly from four universities. All of them completed four questionnaires: Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, Ruminative Responses Scale, Core Self-Evaluations Scale and UCLA Loneliness Scale. This study used AMOS 22.0 to analyze data collected by questionnaire survey. First, we examined the common method deviation analysis and used AMOS 22.0 to examine the measurement model. Then, we used the structural equation model and the bootstrap estimation procedure to analyze the mediating roles of both core self-evaluation and rumination between childhood maltreatment and loneliness in adulthood. Last, multi-group analysis was used to examine whether the structural model was stable when considering gender differences. The proposed structural equation model was tested and the results were as followings: (1) childhood maltreatment could affect loneliness in adulthood through the mediating role of rumination. (2) core self-evaluation fully mediated the association between childhood maltreatment and loneliness in adulthood. (3) childhood maltreatment could affect rumination through core self-evaluation, and then affected loneliness. That’s, core self-evaluation and rumination played chain intermediary roles. In addition, we further used the Critical Ratios of Differences (CRD) between the two models as an indicator to investigate the differences between male and female standard deviations. The results showed that there was no significant difference in the structural path of all variables. Therefore, the model in present study had cross-gender stability. This study indicated the underlying mechanisms of childhood maltreatment on loneliness in adulthood, including the indirect influence through rumination and core self-evaluation. And the present study was the first to demonstrate the chain mediating roles of rumination and core self-evaluation in the effect of childhood maltreatment on loneliness in adulthood. Therefore, the current study provided empirical evidence that childhood maltreatment was a non-negligible harm for loneliness in adulthood. And it extended related theories on suppressing the negative effects of early abuse. Our findings also deepen our understanding of the loneliness mechanism by examining the mediating roles of rumination and core self-evaluation under theoretical frameworks. Related Articles | Metrics

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New Methods for Item Exposure Control in Cognitive Diagnostic Computerized Adaptive Testing 2021, (1): 205-213.  Abstract ( )   Cognitive diagnostic assessment (CDA) has recently been attracted more and more attention in educational and psychological measurement. CDA can provide detailed information about the strengths and weakness of individuals for a specific content domain. At the same time, the computerized adaptive testing (CAT) can lead to as well as or even better measure accuracy of individuals’ latent skills than the traditional paper and pencil (P&P) tests. To take advantage of both CDA and CAT, these two technologies have been combined to form the cognitive diagnostic computerized adaptive testing (CD-CAT). The major concern of the CD-CAT is the measurement accuracy, therefore, a bunch of item selection methods were developed to achieve this goal. Worth noting that these methods mainly focused on maximizing the measurement accuracy without concerned for item exposure control, as a consequence, a highly uneven distribution of item bank usage was raised. To find a balance between measurement accuracy and item exposure control, some new item selection methods were proposed, for instance restrictive progressive (RP), restrictive threshold (RT), stratified multistage (SM), stratified multistage & item eligibility (SMIE), randomization halving algorithm (RHA), and stratified dynamic binary searching (SDBS) methods. However, the model that used in these studies was either the deterministic input, noisy ‘and’ gate (DINA) or the reduced reparameterized unified model (RRUM). Moreover, some of them tended to produce high item exposure rate, and some of them are lack of flexibility, such as the SDBS method. In order to cope with these shortages above mentioned, two new methods are proposed to balance the measurement accuracy and item exposure rate, the new methods combine the RHA with RP and RT methods, and namely, the halving inverse RP (HIRP) and halving inverse RT (HIRT) methods. A Monte Carlo simulation is conducted to examine the performance of HIRP, HIRT and existed item exposure control methods. Four factors are manipulated in the study: model type, number of attributes, test length, and item selection method. Specifically, the model type includes the DINA model and RRUM; four and six number of attributes are used; the test length are 20 and 30, respectively; and 11 item selection methods—— Random, PWKL, RP, RT, SM, IE, SMIE, RHA, SDBS, HIRP, and HIRT—— are adopted in the study. At the same time, the covariates include: the size of the item bank, item parameters of the model, the sample size, and the maximum item exposure rate. The main results show that: (1) The HIRT method produces slightly worse item exposure rate but with significant higher measurement accuracy than RP, SM, SMIE, RHA, and SDBS; meanwhile, HIRT has slightly lower measurement accuracy than PWKL, RT, and IE, but has more even distribution of item exposure. (2) The measurement accuracy of HIRP is lower than PWKL, RP, RT, IE, and HIRT, but the item exposure rate, in general, is better than these methods; in addition, HIRP produces higher measurement accuracy and better item exposure rate than SM, SMIE, and SDBS. In conclusion, both HIRP and HIRT, in some degree, can balance the trade-off between measurement accuracy and item exposure rate. Related Articles | Metrics

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A review of longitudinal cognitive diagnosis models for learning tracking 2021, (1): 214-222.  Abstract ( )   Individual growth/change has long been an active topic in educational, psychological and behavioral studies. During the last decades, the assessment pattern of objectively quantifying the learning status and providing diagnostic feedback has been increasingly valued, aiming at promoting students’ learning, based on the idea of assessment for learning and the characteristics of cognitive diagnostic assessments (CDA). Although most of the existing studies on CDA mentioned that the main objective of CDA is to identify students’ strengths and weaknesses in their learning status and to provide guidance for targeted remedial teachings, still few studies have focused on and evaluated the effectiveness of such remedial teachings. The main reason is that the cross-sectional design is currently adopted by most CDAs. This means that only one assessment is done at a specific point in time. This issue may also reflect on the development of existing cognitive diagnosis models (CDMs) which is one of the core components of CDA. Although various CDMs have been suggested by previous researchers, most of them are only applicable to cross-sectional data analysis. The longitudinal data collected from the assessments throughout the learning process provides researchers the chance to develop learning models, that can be adapted to track individual growth over time and to evaluate remedial teachings’ effectiveness. Compared to the cross-sectional cognitive diagnostic assessment, the longitudinal cognitive diagnostic assessment is more helpful when aiming at promoting students' development. However, so far, longitudinal CDM is just a new rising topic in foreign countries, and still, in its infancy, there are many issues for further study. And the domestic research is almost blank. Therefore, in order to make domestic scholars systematically understanding the longitudinal CDM, several longitudinal CDMs are reviewed in this article. We first divided the existing longitudinal CDMs into two types according to the modeling logic: one is based on the latent transition analysis and another one is based on the higher-order latent structural model. Then, the theoretical basis and application scenarios of some representative models are introduced and explained one by one, including Li, Cohen, Bottge, & Templin (2016), Kaya and Leite (2017), Wang, Yang, Culpepper, and Douglas (2018), Huang (2017), and Zhan, Jiao, Liao, and Li (2019). Furthermore, a simple simulation study was conducted to present how to use the longitudinal CDM for data analysis and how to interpret corresponding diagnostic results, which is of certain reference value to practitioners. Finally, four future research topics are concluded, (a) systematic comparison between different longitudinal CDMs, which can provide theoretical suggestions for practitioners to choose suitable models; (b) incorporating process data or biometrical data into current longitudinal CDMs, which can provide theoretical support for using multivariate data to assist the evaluation of student development; (c) extending current longitudinal CDMs to handle polytomous attributes and probabilistic attributes, since polytomous attributes and probabilistic attributes can describe the growth of students in a more refined way than binary attribute; (d) compared with cross-sectional CDAs, the diagnostic accuracy and validity of longitudinal CDA that used to depict the learning or growth trajectories are more worthy of attention by researchers and practitioners. In addition to choose a suitable longitudinal CDM, many factors such as the quality of the longitudinal test itself, the setting of a cognitive model, students’ response attitude, cheating and missing data will also affect the accuracy and validity of the diagnostic results. The influence degree of these factors on the longitudinal diagnosis and the corresponding compensation or detection methods are also worth further discussion. Related Articles | Metrics

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The development of formal feedback and its clinical application 2021, (1): 223-229.  Abstract ( )   Abstract: Formal feedback involves the routine collection of client feedback to track their progress, identify not-on track clients, and facilitate adjustment of therapy to prevent treatment failure. The need for formal feedback is based on previous findings that many clients quit therapy prematurely or have negative outcomes. Unfortunately, therapists usually do poorly in predicting treatment failures. However, formal feedback shows a superior ability to identify clients who are not on track in the early stage of psychotherapy, which makes corrective intervention possible in the coming sessions. Historically, the development of formal feedback occurred in two stages. In the first stage (about 1996-2011), researchers developed client feedback systems and examined the effectiveness of formal feedback. But so far, there are only two client feedback systems supported by randomized clinical trials. The first is the Outcome Questionnaire System, and the other is the Partners for Change Outcome Management System. In the second stage(since about 2011), clinical researchers focused on clinical utility, including developing brief questionnaires to track clients’ progress and integrating feedback data into clinical process. Formal feedback is now widely used in various clinical settings, including individual, couples and group therapy. Two recent meta-analyses showed that, in the feedback condition, there was a 50% reduction in the proportion of clients who got worse at the end of therapy, and the rate of significant improvement was several times higher than in the treatment as usual condition. This research introduced the application of formal feedback in different therapy setting, and recommended some alternative client feedback systems that have been proved to be effective to enhance treatment outcome in individual, couples and group therapy. In addition, researchers discussed the influence of clients’ level of initial distress on feedback effect. The formal feedback provided to therapists is also helpful as part of clinical supervision. Firstly, formal feedback can help to evaluate the effect of clinical supervision from the perspective of clients, which may be more objective and accurate. Secondly, novice therapists may use formal feedback from clients to identify what they need help with during supervision, and to help them learn from their failures to become more effective. Thirdly, formal feedback can provide indirect information about the effectiveness and direction of clinical supervision. Supervisors can teach targeted techniques and skills to supervisees according to patterns of formal feedback across clients. In future research, it will be important to explore therapists' attitudes toward formal feedback, and identify the possible barriers and facilitators of this approach from the perspective of individuals, organizations and practical concerns. This information will then lay the groundwork for promoting positive attitudes towards formal feedback. In addition, it will be of significance to extend the application value of formal feedback, such as using feedback to promote the development of therapists’ professional skills, and integrating information gained from formal feedback into novice therapists’ training. Finally, more localized studies of formal feedback should be conducted, including developing client feedback systems and establishing the norms of client feedback data based on cultural context. Related Articles | Metrics

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Can Mixing Emotions Promote Mental Health? 2021, (1): 230-236.  Abstract ( )   For a long time, the search for a relationship between mood and mental health has been taking place in two seemingly contradictory but closely related directions. The powerful destructiveness of negative emotions and the protective and promoting role of positive emotions are often the focus of research in this field. However, theoretical and empirical studies in recent years have shown that it is insufficient to draw a comprehensive conclusion on the relationship between emotions and mental health by focusing solely on the role of positive or negative emotions. How the simultaneous experience of positive and negative emotions, namely mixed emotions, can affect mental health is a question worth discussing, which provides a new idea for the research on the relationship between emotions and health. The Co-activation Model of Healthy Coping suggests that mixed emotions enable individuals to find meaning from stressful events, gain a sense of control over their lives, and turn adversity into strength. When experiencing both positive and negative emotions at the same time reaches the optimal balance, the most beneficial health outcomes can be achieved. The Dynamic Model of Affect also points out that the ability to experience mixed emotions under pressure is beneficial to the health of individuals. Such a state of uncoupling between positive and negative emotions enables people to freely obtain positive experience and healthy emotional state even under pressure. He Model of Positivity Ratios emphasized the effect of mixed emotions on mental health from the perspective of positive psychology, and put forward a concept similar to Co-activation Model on the relationship between the two. Mixed emotions promote mental health mainly in stress coping, happiness and psychotherapy. In stress coping, mixed emotions are conducive to reducing negative experiences brought by stressful events, promoting the integration and processing of complex information, and problem-solving oriented behaviors, as well as improving coping efficiency. The effect of mixed emotions on happiness lies in that it can help individuals comprehensively consider the positive and negative characteristics of goal conflict in the process of goal realization, balance multiple aspects of complex events, potentially promote the process of meaning creation, and finally obtain happiness experience. Mixed emotions are also seen as a protective factor against the formation of psychiatric symptoms and can predict the improvement of psychological symptoms during treatment. Although the positive effects of mixed emotions on mental health have been supported by theoretical and empirical studies, many scholars have found that the relationship between them is complex and non-linear. The individual's tolerance and ability to deal with the conflict and ambivalence of mixed emotions may be the key variable affecting the relationship between mixed emotions and mental health. Individual and cultural characteristics related to tolerance and handling ability of mixed emotions, including construal level, mixed emotion experience pattern and cultural differences, have moderating effects on different degree in the process of mixed emotion promoting mental health. Mixed emotional experience is a common psychological state in daily life, which is closely related to mental health. However, previous studies have not paid enough attention to this field, so some important issues have not been fully discussed, which should be paid attention to in future studies: (1) An accurate description of the non-linear relationship between mixed emotions and mental health. (2) To determine whether mixed emotions have different effects and mechanisms on mental health in low-stress situations (such as adaptation and interpersonal communication) and non-stress situations (such as entertainment and consumption). (3) The internal and external mechanisms of mixed emotions promoting mental health should be discussed in detail. Related Articles | Metrics

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Interpretation of Freud's Personality Theory under Yin-Yang Theory 2021, (1): 244-250.  Abstract ( )   According to psychoanalytic practice, Freud put forward a dynamic model of personality. He divided personality into three systems, including id, ego and superego. Undoubtedly, his theory contains the dialectical thought of the contradictory struggle between desire and morality, which is reflected in the ‘war’ between the id and superego. However, he excessively emphasized on biological instinct, and paid too much attention to repression and conflict. As a consequence, the complementary characteristic of contradictions was neglected. In fact, the mental structure of human beings situates in the intermediate state of "nature-morality", and it can be understood by means of "Yin and Yang" thought in Chinese philosophy, complementing with Freud's theoretical views. Some researchers have proposed a mental model of Tai Ji diagram on the basis of Freud’s early viewpoints. However, this model seems to be not enough. This paper aims to explain the development and existential states of ego according to Freud’s personality theory and Yin-and-Yang-fish diagram. Firstly, from the perspective of the Tai Ji diagram, the id and superego represent Yin and Yang that are derived from two parts of life, and the ego is the Tai Ji diagram that is composed of Yin and Yang. However, an individual gradually realizes that he is consist of aesthetic ego (i.e., Yin fish) and the ethical ego (i.e., Yang fish) during the process of pursuing or establishing existence and security. The Yin fish represents the unique and uncertain, passionate and impulsive id, while the Yang fish represents the strict and ethical, safe and transparent superego. Secondly, ego includes three existential states: (1) "aesthetic ego", which mainly consists of "Yin fish"; (2)"ethical ego", which mainly consists of "Yang fish"; and (3) "perfect ego", which means Yin is in harmony with Yang. Thirdly, the development of yin-yang follows a double-helix structure which consists of fish tail, fish head and fish eyes. Concretely speaking, the developmental process of "Yin-fish-ego" starts from natural (sensory) desire to reflective (rational) aesthetics, and then to the ethicalization of aesthetics; the developmental process of "Yang-fish- ego" begins from natural emotion to rational ethics, and then to the aestheticization of ethics. However, Yin and Yang usually gain different advantages at different stages of life. Finally, individual life originated from the unconscious is influenced by experiences and culture. The ego transforms from passive acceptance to initiative establishment, from unconsciously persuing meaning to consciously realizing value, and finally achieves transcendental and satisfactory state. During this process, the adolescence is dominated by aesthetic ego, the adulthood is dominated by ethics ego, and the task in senility period is to pursue "perfect ego" in order for harmony and unity. Future research can start from the following aspects. Foremost, the personality structure of Yin-and-Yang-fish diagram can be used to deal with the problems of personal fragmentation, depression and mania, even to explore the Yin and Yang model of interpersonal interactions. Furthermore, the future research can analyze the individual mind by combining the self-cultivation thoughts of Confucian social person and Taoist natural persons, in order to develop an almost perfect self of individual. Finally, the features of Yin-Yang-fish diagiam is integrative, dialectical, developmental and dynamic, including the philosophy of harmony of man with nature. This means it can be helpful for constructing and analyzing the structure and development of mind. On the other hand, there is no such thing as supremacy between Yin and Yang. They are equal and develop with the consciousness, or even bypassing the consciousness. That is different from the biological sexual instinct determination theory of Freud. In Freud’s opinion, the id has exceeded the individual it belongs to and looks like “the God” that thinking aims to wipe out the concept of individual and make people a group or a species. Yin Yang fish character is intended to provide different status of life or existence, not a standard to become a person. People has the freedom to choose the status they are in. The psychological mission of this concept is to explain and describe the contradiction and balance in every mental scenario for precaution. “That is why people living in a nest can tell the wind and the people in a cave can tell the rain. Taking what you worry about and Making what get you safe last. ”Yin Yang fish character emphasis the precaution to the imbalance instead of control, not defining people to a certain pattern. Last but not least, the Western scholars have been interested about the Yin Yang theory of China long ago. For example, the philosopher Leibniz found the meaning of Yin Yang in mathematical “binary algorithm”，the enthusiasm for Taoism classics of Jung and the use of Yin Yang perspective to explore management issues about cooperate competitions and cooperation by the modern Western scholars. In addition, as our society is on the period of transformation and shock brought by post-modern self-concept, the spiritual structure of the people is facing great changes and severe challenges and more and more people are getting out of balance. The same situation applies to Wei and Jin Dynasty , World War II and globalization nowadays. So it is very important for us to have the construction of our spiritual structure by reviewing the influence and value of traditional Chinese thinking to the modern society. Related Articles | Metrics