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The Relation between Attachment Anxiety and Mental Health among College Students in Dating Relationships: The Mediating and Moderating Role of Dating Relationship Quality 2022, 45(5): 1092-1098.  Abstract ( )   With college students going into dating relationships, dating partners become their new attachment figures. Attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance are two orthogonal dimensions of adult attachment. Attachment avoidance reflects the degree to which individuals discomfort about intimacy and can make individuals feel that others can’t be trusted and then isolate themselves from others. Attachment anxiety reflects the degree to which individuals worry and ruminate about being rejected or abandoned by their partners and can make individuals feel they can’t deal with distress by themselves and then they rely on others. Both attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance relate to mental health negatively, however, attachment anxiety has stronger association with anxiety and depression than attachment avoidance. Since dating relationship quality is a key factor for mental health among college students, the role of dating relationship quality in the relationship between attachment anxiety and mental health will be investigated in this article. It is hypothesized that dating relationship quality plays both mediating and moderating role between attachment anxiety and mental health. On one side, attachment anxiety is a kind of relatively stable personal traits and attachment style is stable with the change of time. Viewed from this angle, the individuals with high attachment anxiety tend to have a low quality of dating relationship, and then have a low level of mental health. On the other side, the quality of dating relationship is not entirely determined by the level of attachment anxiety. In some cases, dating relationships can buffer the insecurity level and promote the security level of individuals with high attachment anxiety. Viewed from this angle, dating relationship quality can buffer the effects of attachment anxiety on mental health. Based on above hypotheses, the role of dating relationship quality between attachment anxiety and mental health was explored with 595 college students who were in dating relationships currently as subjects. Participants finished the measures including Experiences in Close Relationships Inventory, Mental Health Continuum-Short Form, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale-13, and The Relationship Assessment Scale. The results showed that dating relationship quality played both mediating and moderating role between attachment anxiety and mental health. On the one hand, attachment anxiety could have negative influence on mental health through influencing dating relationship quality. On the other hand, high quality of dating relationships could buffer the negative effects of attachment anxiety on mental health. To sum up, the mediating and moderating role of dating relationship quality between attachment anxiety and mental health was confirmed. It can also provide intellectual support for improving the effectiveness of mental health education in colleges and universities. However, some limitations were elicited in this research. Longitudinal data should be used in order to confirm the causal relationship of attachment anxiety, dating relationship quality, and mental health; how the partners perceive the relationship quality should be assessed using both the self-reported and other-report data in the future; attachment anxiety as a state should be taken into account according to the distinction of trait attachment and state attachment. Related Articles | Metrics

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An Explanation for Infants’ Understanding of Other Minds: “Like Me” Hypothesis Yang-yang SUN CHEN Wei 2022, 45(5): 1099-1105.  Abstract ( )   How do infants in the initial state view the human behaviors similar as their own? And how do they interpret the external behaviors and internal perceptions of others? Based on the challenge to the traditional theory of “solipsism”, Meltzoff and his colleagues conducted series of research, and explained the above queries through the framework of “like me”. This hypothesis showing that infants already have a sense of “it is like me” at the very beginning of social interactions. Focusing on the experimental evidences of theoretical hypothesis and influencing factors on the “like me”, this review generalizes the components and development approaches of the hypothesis, and the inspirations it given to our educational practices. The fundamental view of the “like me” hypothesis is that infants can interpret the others as their owns which having the similar mental state by means of the recognition of self–other equivalences. Thus, it provides infants with an interpretive framework for understanding the behaviors they observed. In this regard, infants are given rise to perceiving the structure congruence between the actions performed by others they saw and their owns, comprehending goal–directed action of others, and guiding their own subsequent actions by “grabbing” the interactive information of others. Perceiving the same agent as “like me” is a social primitive. These primordial experiences are accomplished by a combination of action representation, first–person experience and understanding of other minds. Under interaction of these three components, infants can inspect their own acts–as–felts or acts–as–seen in others via observation and imitation, and thus to form a self-other mapping. Distinguishing the informations from exteroception (perception of others) and proprioception (perception of self) can be achieved by the system of action representation. Moreover, infants can also interpret other person's intentions, desires or objectives according to their own actions and experiences.These three essential components composed the infant’s initial state and also becomes an intrinsic power propelling the human infants forward into an increasingly adultlike world. Concerning two social learning mechanisms that based on the “like me” cognition, gaze following and imitation illuminate meaningful functions of bidirectional learning which involves the perception and production to the development of social cognition with human infancy. In recent years, although, different researchers have come to different views about the initial state of social cognition, almost all studies acknowledge the positive role of bidirectional learning in children's development. Therefore, in order to promote the development of social cognitive abilities, our educators should build up the learning environments to help the young children with imitation and observation. By supporting children in learning how to observe with the first-person perspective and how to align themselves with others in the same mental perspectives is more likely to form a feeling of “likeness” between their partners. By constructing the mentalized classrooms based on “like me”, it makes possible for young children to learn more effectively from the dual perspective of “educator” and “learner” in the future. Related Articles | Metrics

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How Does Cue Strength Affect The Retrieval Practice Effect: Evidence from ERPs 2022, 45(5): 1106-1114.  Abstract ( )   The retrieval practice effect, refering that memory retrieval on one or more tests improves memory retention better than re-studying or elaborative study among certain amount of time. Researchers have found that cue strength can affect the testing effect, but it is still not clear that how cue strength affects it. To explore the mechanism of cue strength affect the retrieval practice effect, the present study compared the electrophysiological responses of different learning strategies in different cue strength learning materials. The current study included two experiments, experiment 1, behavior experiment, recruited 50 participants (age range: 19~25 years, average age: 22.4 years ); Experiment 2, event-related potential (ERP) experiment, recruited 40 participants (age range: 19~26 years, average age: 22.8 years ). Both experiments used the classical paradigm for the retrieval practice effect (including three distinct phases: study phase, initial retrieval phase, and a final test phase after a delay of one week). During the experiment, participants were instructed to learn and memorize the cue-target word pairs with different cue strength. The behavioral data showed the influence of cue strength on retrieval practice effect. In the weak cue strength group, the performance of the retrieved items in the final test was significantly better than the elaborative studied items. However, in the strong cue strength group, there was no significant difference in the performance of the two learning conditions in the final test. ERP data showed that there was a significant difference between the subsequent memory effect (SME) of the two learning conditions when learning weak cue strength pairs. In the three selected time windows, it was always observed that the main effect of learning condition was significant or the interaction between learning condition and other factors was significant, and SME was similar to Late Parietal Component (LPC) in the retrieval practice condition. In contrast, when learning strong cue strength pairs, the two learning conditions had similar SME. In 300-500ms and 500-700ms, there was no significant main effect of learning condition or interaction effect with other factors. Although there was a significant main effect of learning condition in 700-1000ms, there was still no SME. In the current study, there is evidence that whether to retrieve episodic context is the key to retrieval practice effect. When retrieving the strong cue strength pairs, it is precisely because the individual does not retrieve episodic context, but uses the cognitive processing similar to the elaborative study, which affects retrieval practice effect. This study also found that when learning strong cue strength materials, retrieval practice only needs less cognitive resources to achieve the same memory effect as elaborative study, so it is still recommended to use retrieval practice as the main learning strategy. In addition, this study once again supports the Episodic Context Account. Related Articles | Metrics

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Core symptoms of depression in Chinese adolescents and comparison between different gender and levels of depression: A network analysis approach 2022, 45(5): 1115-1122.  Abstract ( )   Abstract: Recently, the network theory of mental disorder (NTMD) and the corresponding method of network analysis have been used in the field of depression to illustrate the structure of depression, the core symptoms of depression, and the network changes over time or under intervention conditions. Previous research has provided a host of evidence and specific suggestions for the treatment of depression. Yet, this theory and method have not been used and explored among Chinese people with depression, especially in Chinese adolescents. It has been argued that adolescents are the high-risk group of depression, however, not many studies focus on adolescents’ depression from the perspective of network theory until recently. Notably, existing studies have demonstrated cultural differences in the core symptoms of depression among adolescents. For example, loneliness has been identified as one of the core depressive symptoms in American adolescents, while it has not been found in Indian adolescents. Similarly, fear of failure has been found in Indian adolescents but not in American adolescents. Therefore，it is meaningful to explore the core symptoms of Chinese adolescents under Chinese culture, which may further facilitate better treatment of Chinese adolescents’ depression. Besides, a large amount of literature has reached the consistent conclusion that the female gets a higher depression score than the male, but recent research has found something different. It has point outed that the network global strength is invariant across genders despite network structure varying with genders. But that study has not considered core symptoms. Hence, we planned to explore gender differences in core symptoms, network structure, and global strength of depression among Chinese adolescents to provide more evidence about it. Additionally, among groups with different levels of depression, the mid-depression group namely, those with depression proneness might be ignored by some traditional researchers who only select high-risk depression or major depression adolescents to study and treat. Actually, the mid-depression group is more likely to step into a high-risk depression group, comparing with the non-depression group. Furthermore, according to NTMD, there are differences between the networks of these groups. To address these gaps, the current study examined core symptoms, network structure, and global strength in all three groups. Guided by NTMD, this study used data collected from Chinese adolescents from grade 7 to grade 12 (N=3634, Mage=14.4 years, 50.6% girls) to test the network structure, network global strength, and core symptoms of depression, by using network analysis method and network comparison. The CES-D scale was used to measure depressive symptoms of adolescents. The result showed that the core symptoms of Chinese adolescents were feeling of failure, depressed mood, sadness, and fatigue. And these core symptoms, network structure, and global strength were invariant across genders, but various in three groups. Specifically, the non-depression group’s core symptoms were depressed mood, lack of happiness, incapacity to enjoy life. Besides the three ones listed above, the mid-depression group’s core symptoms include feeling inferior to others. Moreover, the centrality of these core symptoms in the mid-depression group was overall higher than that of the non-depression group. The high-risk depression group’s core symptoms were also a bit different from the others, including a feeling of failure, sadness, incapacity to enjoy life. The network comparison test showed that in the network structure, the mid-depression group was different from the non-depression group but similar to the high-risk group and that in the global strength, the mid-depression group was higher than the non-depression group but lower than the high-risk group. Results in this study give some suggestions for intervention or treatment towards depression. First, as indicated in the study, core symptoms in Chinese adolescents possessed their own cultural meanings. Thus, intervention or treatment towards depression should not only focus on the core symptoms but also consider the cultural meanings behind symptoms. Second, treatment or intervention should concentrate on different core symptoms according to their depression levels, especially, the attention should be paid to the mid-depression group, because they may meet the condition (changed network structure, increased centrality of core symptoms and increased global strength) to develop high-risk depression. One highlight of this study is that it not only explores the core depressive symptoms of Chinese adolescents but also divides adolescents into different levels of depression groups, beyond existing practice that only selects the high-risk group. Furthermore, it throws light on adolescents with depression proneness and adolescents with high-risk depression from the perspective of network theory. Related Articles | Metrics

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The relationship between false belief comprehension and lie comprehension in hearing-impaired children: The Moderating role of emotional comprehension 2022, 45(5): 1123-1135.  Abstract ( )   Hearing-impaired children can promote the understanding of lies through the understanding of false beliefs, and improve the possibility of accuracy in the future detection of lies. Among them, emotional understanding plays an indispensable role in the process of understanding lies. However, it is still unknown whether different understanding of false beliefs has different effects on different levels of understanding lies. Objective:To investigate the relationship between false belief comprehension and lie comprehension of hearing-impaired children, and the moderating effect of emotional comprehension. Methods: Experiment 1 used false belief comprehension and lie comprehension to explore the relationship between self/others false belief comprehension and lie comprehension. In experiment 2, the emotional comprehension task was added to explore the mechanism behind emotional comprehension between false belief comprehension and lie comprehension. Results: (1) the accuracy of hearing-impaired children's false belief comprehension and lie intention comprehension was significantly lower than that of typical developing children, and the better their false belief comprehension was, the easier they were to distinguish true and false information and lie intention comprehension; (3) When the emotional comprehension score of hearing-impaired children was higher, the false belief comprehension of hearing-impaired children positively predicted the judgment of lying behavior. (4) When the emotional comprehension scores of typical developing children were high, self-false beliefs had a positive predictive effect on the identification of true and false information, while others' false beliefs had a positive predictive effect on the judgment of lying behavior and the identification of true and false information. Conclusion:These results not only indicate that the false belief comprehension of others has an explanatory effect on the lie comprehension of hearing-impaired children, but also promote the promotion of high emotional comprehension in the lie comprehension, and show that high emotional understanding has a more significant moderating effect on false belief comprehension and lie comprehension. These results not only prove that hearing-impaired children's false belief understanding plays an explanatory role in lie understanding，but also promote the role of high emotional understanding in lie understanding, which is helpful to verify the promoting role of emotional understanding in lie understanding, and the moderating effect of high emotional understanding on false belief understanding and lie understanding is more significan. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Interaction of TPH2 rs4570625 Polymorphism and Maternal Authoritativeness on Creativity 2022, 45(5): 1136-1143.  Abstract ( )   Creativity, like most other complex traits, is determined by the interplay of genes and the environment. The relationship between maternal authoritativeness and creativity has been extensively studied. However, previous research on the role of maternal authoritativeness in creativity has produced mixed results. It is reasonable to suspect that the primary reason for the discrepancy may be the neglect of gene-environment (G × E) interaction. Early research found that the serotonin system genes and maternal parenting styles have an interactive effect on creativity. The TPH2 gene plays an important role in the serotonin synthesis in the brain, which is closely related to creativity. However, no articles study the interaction between TPH2 gene polymorphism and maternal parenting styles on creativity. This study wants to fill this research gap. Among the polymorphic sites of TPH2, rs4570625 is the most investigated polymorphic site by researchers. Studies have shown that the rs4570625 polymorphism is significantly related to creativity. Therefore, this study explores the interaction between the rs4570625 polymorphism and maternal authoritativeness on creativity and explains maternal authoritativeness’s controversial results. There are three overarching theoretical perspectives to explain the G × E interaction model: the genetic vulnerability, differential susceptibility, and vantage sensitivity models. Until now, only one study explained the prediction model of the interaction between the 5-HT gene and environment on creativity. Thus, little is known about the exact G × E interaction pattern for creativity. The present study also examines the potential interaction model to further clarify the G × E interaction pattern for creativity and better explain the interaction of TPH2 rs4570625 polymorphism and maternal parenting styles. The present study used performance evaluation, self-reporting and genotyping to measure 409 healthy Chinese Han college students’ general intelligence and creativity, maternal parenting style, and genotype. First, three verbal tasks in the creativity measurement tool compiled by Runco Creativity Assessment Battery (rCAB) were selected to measure the participants’ creativity. Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) was used to test the participants’ general fluid intelligence. Second, the maternal version of the Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ) compiled by Buri measured maternal parenting style. In addition, the Sequenom MassAR-RAY iPLEX system (Sequenom, San Diego, CA) was used for rs4570625 genotyping at Shenzhen-Beijing Institute of Genomics. Finally, hierarchical regression analysis and regions of significance (RoS) methods were used to analyze the collected data and the interaction effects of TPH2 rs4570625 polymorphism and maternal authoritativeness on creativity. The results showed that: (1) There was a significant interaction between rs4570625 polymorphism and maternal authoritativeness on predicting fluency and originality. Maternal authoritativeness significantly predicted the fluency/originality of T allele carriers, and this predictive effect did not occur in GG homozygous individuals. (2) For fluency and originality, the analysis of RoS both provided supporting evidence for the differential susceptibility model. Compared with GG homozygous individuals, T allele carriers reported significantly higher fluency/originality when there was high maternal authoritativeness and significantly lower fluency/originality when there was low maternal authoritativeness. This study is the first to investigate the interaction between rs4570625 polymorphism and maternal authoritativeness on creativity and its interactive model, which provides new evidence for the role of genes and early maternal parenting in predicting creativity. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Penalty Anticipation on the Shy Individual's Attention Bias Min-Xia XU Xian JianWang 2022, 45(5): 1144-1151.  Abstract ( )   Shyness individuals, regardless of the type of shyness, are more likely to show a bias toward a threat of stimulation. According to cognitive theory, the anxiety components of shy individuals improve the ability of attention system from bottom to top, and damage the top-down attention system, thereby automatically deploying additional attention resources, highlighting emotional stimuli, especially threatening stimuli. The attention bias in cognitive bias is an important reason for shyness. Rewards and punishment can also guide individuals' attention bias. Shy individuals are more sensitive to punishment information. This study adopts Wang Qianqian Henderson revised "College Students' Shyness Scale", we collected 170 freshmen in university, the final effective subjects was 45, the dot probe paradigm was used to study, through three experiments to investigate the expected punishment effect on attentional bias of shy individuals. In Experiment 1, the design is 2 (expectation: reward, punishment) × 3 (emotion: positive, negative, neutral); Experiment 2 and 3, through eye movement test, respectively explored the effect of punishment frequency and punishment size on attention bias in shy individuals. The experiment was designed for 2 (penalty frequency: 30%, 70%) × 2 (time process: 500ms, 1250ms), and the experiment 3 was designed for 2 (punishment size: big, small) × 2 (time process: 500ms, 1250ms), these three experimental’ design are subjects. This study draws the following results: (a) The shy individual pays attention to the negative face under the expected condition. There is a bias towards positive faces under the expectation of reward. (b) When the time of presentation is 500ms, the change of the frequency of punishment does not affect the attention bias of the shy individuals. However, when the punishment frequency is 70%, shyness individuals have more attention to face pictures, while shy individuals maintain more attention to face pictures under 30% penalty frequency. When the presentation time is 1250ms, the shy individuals initially escape from the face images when the punishment frequency is 30%, and the initial attention time is very short. (c) Present time 500ms time course, the expected punishment under the condition of large individual attention detection initial shyness and time for emotional faces sustained attention; expected punishment under the condition of small, shy individuals on emotional face pictures does not exist attention detection and sustained attention. In the present time 1250ms time course, the expected punishment under the condition of shyness for emotional faces in images do not exist attention bias and sustained attention; the expected punishment under the condition of small, shy individuals for emotional faces still showed no initial attention detection, but after a period of time, there are some shy individuals sustained attention on the emotional faces. In sum, in the early stage of attention, shy individuals avoid negative emotional faces under different punishment anticipation conditions. At the later stage of the attention process, shy individuals for emotional faces still showed no initial attention detection. Related Articles | Metrics

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Comparison of Three Test Approaches for Adolescents' Future Orientation Ben-Yang LIU Xiao-song Gai 2022, 45(5): 1152-1158.  Abstract ( )   Future orientation is ability that individual's thinking and planning for the future. The ability to foresee, anticipate, and plan for future desired outcomes is crucial for well-being, motivation, achievement, adjustment, and behavior. Future orientation of adolescents increases with age. Studies had shown that the younger adolescents demonstrated a weaker orientation to the future than the older. Now, the main measure of future orientation is the questionnaire method. However, the questionnaire method is not suitable for the study of development trends in that younger adolescents overestimated with their abilities. Behavioral testing method can make up for the disadvantage of questionnaire but only can measure one of respects of future orientation. Therefore, it is to propose a new measurement method, namely work analysis method. The study aimed to examine the advantages and disadvantages of existing methods of future orientation measurement(questionnaire method, behavior test method) and the effectiveness of new methods(work analysis method). Participants were 307 adolescents including primary school students(84), junior high school students(78), high school students(71) and college students(74), we used three methods to measure future orientation and choose school engagement ,academic achievement as validity criterion. The questionnaire tool is adolescents future orientation questionnaire; the behavior test method used to delay the task, the task The paradigm measures whether the subjects can give up the present reward for greater rewards in the future; the work analysis method allows students to write their own future road in 10 minutes, from the students’ writing content to assess the future orientation of the development; At the same time, exploring the relationship between future orientation and school engagement and academic achievement compared with the advantages and disadvantages of the three measurement methods. The results showed that: (1) questionnaire survey found that the future orientation level of primary school students was the highest, followed by college students, junior high school students, and the senior high school students have the lowest level of future orientation. That means younger adolescents overestimated their ability. (2) Both behavior test method and work analysis method found that the future orientation level of college students was the highest, followed by junior high school students , high school students and primary school students is the lowest. That means the development of adolescents' future orientation gradually increases with age.(3) The correlation analysis showed that the work analysis method was positively correlated with questionnaire and behavior method. The questionnaire is more related to the index of subjective evaluation such as school engagement, the behavior measurement is more related to the index of objective evaluation such as academic achievement, and the work analysis method is both related to the subjective and objective evaluation indexes. The present study provides a new valid method to measure the future orientation of adolescents. This method not only can make up the disadvantage of questionnaire method when we study the development trends of future orientation, but also can measure more aspects of future orientation than behavior method. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Relationship between Social Rejection and College Student Depression: Moderating Role of Wechat Parent-Adolescent Communication and Mediating Role of Emotional Awareness 2022, 45(5): 1159-1165.  Abstract ( )   Social rejection is regarded as a common phenomenon that has a great influence on the physical and mental health of people. Some studies shown that, as a group with a high incidence of social rejection, college students tended to fall into a strong sense of loneliness, depression, anxious, intense psychological pain and other negative emotions. In addition, according to the Interpersonal Acceptance-Rejection Theory, people usually require positive responses from significant others, such as support, care, and acceptance. On the contrary, if an individual perceives the indifference, neglect or rejection of significant others, it may lead to negative emotions and psychological problems. Therefore, it is necessary to pay attention to the negative effects of social rejection on college students. Researchers also suggested that social rejection may cause one’s depression. but the mechanism between them needs to be further studied. According to the Interpersonal Acceptance-Rejection Theory's Personality Subtheory, social rejection could weaken the ability of dealing with emotional stress and emotional regulation. So, negative worldview, negative self-esteem, negative self-adequacy are important elements in the social-cognition or mental representations of rejected persons. The negative mental representations may further increase their risk of depression. Therefore, emotional awareness is an important mediating variable. Furthermore, considering the parent-adolescent communication through WeChat may promote interpersonal relationship, we believe that it is necessary to explore the impact of social rejection. Meanwhile, we strive to provide theoretical support for the prevention and intervention of college students’ social rejection and to reduce the negative effects from such aspect. For above reasons, the study aimed to investigate the association between social rejection and depression, as well as the mediating effect of emotional awareness and the moderating effect of parent-adolescent communication through WeChat. The questionnaire consists of four parts, including the Social Rejection Subscale Questionnaire for the Youth Self Report protocol, the Emotional Awareness Questionnaire, the Parent-adolescent communication Scale, and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). 431 college students were selected as samples, of which 154 were male and 277 were female, with an average age of 19.88(SD =1.52). Data was collected and analyzed with SPSS 19.0, and the bias-corrected percentile Bootstrap method was used to examine the mediating effect of emotional awareness and the moderating effect of parent-adolescent communication through WeChat. The results indicated that: (1) After controlling for gender and age, social rejection was positively correlated with depression, while negatively correlated with emotional awareness and parent-adolescent communication through WeChat; whereas both emotional awareness and parent-adolescent communication through WeChat were negatively correlated with depression. (2) Social rejection is not only directly related to the depression, also indirectly affected the depression through the mediating effect of emotional awareness. (3) The direct effect of social rejection on depression was moderated by parent-adolescent communication through WeChat, and the effect was more obvious among college students who enjoy high-frequency parent-adolescent communication through WeChat. In summary, a moderated mediation model of emotional awareness and parent-adolescent communication through WeChat was constructed to reveal the underlying mechanism between social rejection and depression in study, which can contribute to a better understanding of the way and the time that social rejection increases the risk of depression. Furthermore, it suggested that early intervention concerning diminishing the negative effects of social rejection may start with increasing the individual’s emotional awareness and parent-adolescent communication through WeChat. Related Articles | Metrics

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The internal psychological mechanisms of item-method directed forgetting: based on the analysis of the MPT model 2022, 45(5): 1026-1036.  Abstract ( )   There continue to be many arguments about the psychological mechanism of item method directed forgetting. The traditional data analysis methods used in previous studies were also difficult to quantify and estimate the storage and retrieval process behind the directed forgetting effect. Besides, the test in a series of memory processing models was limited to recall test and could not fully reflect all aspects of forgetting and memory retrieval. Therefore, based on the previous studies, the present study first constructed a new multinomial processing tree model of memory process used single word as learning material and comprehensively investigated the memory retrieval processed in the test stage phase. After the model was validated, this study manipulated the relevant variables of the theories to explore the internal psychological mechanism of item-method directed forgetting. The storage-retrieval model was used as a template to construct a multinomial processing tree model based on the free-recall-then-recognition paradigm, and the model was continuously improved. The confirmatory experiment conducted a 2 (coding depth: 1000 ms vs. 5000 ms) × 2 (learning-test interval: 0 min vs. 6 min) mixed design, and 32 college students participated in this experiment. The results showed that the model could well reflect the changes in the storage and retrieval of information during the memory process. Moreover, model assumptions were also supported, and the model could be applied to subsequent studies. To investigate the internal psychological mechanisms of item-method directed forgetting, the experiment conducted a 2 (group: forgetting group vs. remember group) × 2 (item type: TBF/R vs. TBR/R) × 2 (SOA: 1600 ms vs. 2600 ms) mixed design to examine the internal psychological mechanism of directed forgetting under item-method paradigm and 38 college students participated in this experiment. The results of the experiment showed that for the TBF/R items, the storage and retrieval capacity of the forgetting group were weaker than those of the memory group; for the TBR/R items, only the storage capacity of the forgetting group was stronger than that of the memory group. The participants were less able to retrieve TBF items than TBR items in the forgetting group. Moreover, for both short-term SOA and long-term SOA, the reaction time of TBF items that followed by a probe stimulus in the forgetting group was longer than that of the memory group. In conclusion, the multinomial processing tree model based on the free-recall-then-recognition paradigm can well reflect the changes of critical parameters by experimental manipulation. Therefore, it can be applied to the research of directed forgetting internal psychological mechanism. The internal psychological mechanism of the item-method directed forgetting is the result of the combined effect of selective rehearsal, attentional inhibition and retrieval inhibition. Furthermore, the cost of directed forgetting relied on the combined effect of attentional inhibition and retrieval inhibition, and the benefit depended on the combined effect of selective rehearsal and attention inhibition. Related Articles | Metrics

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Novelty seeking on creative behavior performance: the mediating role of semantic network 2022, 45(5): 1037-1044.  Abstract ( )   The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of novelty seeking trait level on creative behavior performance, and to explore the role of semantic network in this process. To this end, the study used the Alternate Uses Test (AUT), the Chinese Compound Remote Association Test (CCRAT) and the Chinese word pair correlation judgment task of two-character words, to compare the performance of individuals with high and low novelty seeking trait level in different creative tasks and the word correlation judgment task. Taking Novelty Seeking Scale as the tool, the two groups of high and low novelty seeking trait, each had 32 participants, were picked out from 300 randomly selected college students. All subjects completed AUT and CCRAT first ( the two task were balanced in order among subjects in both groups), and then judgment task. The answers in AUT were scored on novelty and suitability, as for the other two tasks, the accuracy and response time were recorded. The results showed that: (1) the novelty scores of AUT was significantly higher in the high novelty seeking trait group than in the low trait group, and there was no significant difference in the suitability scores between the two groups. (2) As for the CCRAT, there was no significant difference in the accuracy rate and response time between the two groups with high or low novelty seeking trait. (3) On the Chinese word pair correlation judgment task, the accuracy for high relevance words is significantly higher than that for low related words, the response time for high relevance words is significantly shorter than that for low related words, and the interaction between the novelty seeking trait level and the semantic correlation of words was significant on the response time. For the low correlation word pair, the response time of the high novelty seeking trait group was significantly lower than that of the low novelty seeking trait group; while for the high correlation word pair, the difference between the two groups was not significant. (4) The mediating effect analysis shows that the response time of low-correlation words’ judgement plays a partial mediating role between the novelty seeking trait level and the novelty score of AUT. Taking these results together, the study found that: (1) High novelty seeking individuals showed higher novelty in AUT, but had same performance with low novelty seeking individuals in CCRAT; (2) Individuals with different novelty seeking trait levels have differences in the response time of low-relevant word pairs, high novelty seeking individuals reacted more quickly; (3) The semantic network plays a partial intermediary role in the novelty seeking to influence the performance of creative behavior, which is reflected in the response time of low-relevant word pairs. Innovations of the research:(1) The previous studies mostly used a single task to measure the performance of creative behaviors, that may ignore some important component of creating procedure. This study used two different tasks to explore the performance of creative behaviors. (2) The previous researches, which explored the role of semantic network in the procedure that novelty seeking promotes the performance of creative behaviors, are mainly based on theoretical speculation and lack of empirical evidence. Through empirical research on the internal mechanism of this role, this study explains the role of semantic network in novelty seeking promoting the performance of creative behaviors. Related Articles | Metrics

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The cognitive factors of auditory alarms deafness Rong-Juan ZHU 2022, 45(5): 1045-1052.  Abstract ( )   Inattentional deafness refers to that individual ignores the unexpected auditory stimuli while concentrating on their tasks. This phenomenon is common among our daily life and it is a major threat to aviation and traffic safety. In aeronautics, auditory alarms can provide emergency information for pilots and air-traffic controllers. The analysis of air safety reports indicated that many aviation accidents are due to the lack of response to unexpected and critical auditory alarm. Why does inattentional deafness happen? Human factor engineering reported three reasons to explain this phenomenon. First, pilots mistrust the alerting system due to higher false rate, which akin to cry-wolf effect. Second, the aggressive, distracting, and annoying nature of auditory alarms increased the level of stress of pilots. They didn’t think about the meaning of alarms but close the noise. Finally, for pilots, the ability to perceive auditory alarm become poorer due to frequent noise exposures and aging issues. Nevertheless, these explanations are often reported in aviation accidents analysis and are not sufficient to fully explain why does a pilot ignore the unexpected and critical auditory alarm. Cognitive psychology showed that the perceptual load, cognitive load and working memory played an important role in inattentional deafness. In the cockpit, pilots must simultaneously monitor many instruments, perceive, process, memorize and retrieve an important amount of information, which causes higher perceptual load and cognitive load. Perceptual load theory indicated that higher perceptual load tasks consume most of attentional resources, leaving little or none remaining for processing unexpected information. Cognitive control theory showed that working memory have a key role in attention control. Some studies found that the effect of working memory load on inattentional deafness is the opposite of perceptual load and tasks involving high working memory load consume working memory resources, leaving litter or none remaining for suppress distractions or unexpected stimuli. Hence, auditory alarms can be perceived under higher working memory load. However, other studies showed that working memory protects distraction by exerting top-down control. Pilots cannot perceive the unexpected auditory alarms under higher working memory load. Neurophysiological studies found that the amplitudes of N100 was reduced under higher working memory load and these studies indicated that the unexpected alarm was filtered at an early processing stage. While some studies showed that the amplitudes of P300 was reduced under higher working memory load and the unexpected alarm can be processed in late processing stage. In the current study, we reviewed the papers and found that perceptual load, cognitive load, working memory, task related and visual dominant take accounts to this phenomenon. Perceptual load studies found that the exhaustion of resources under higher perceptual load caused unexpected auditory stimuli to be filtered at an early processing stage. From the aspect of cognitive control, the unexpected auditory stimuli can be processed in late processing stage. The top-down cognitive control took a dominant role in auditory stimuli misperception. Future studies can extend its paradigm and theoretical framework to other safety fields. Moreover, further studies can explore how to avoid inattentional deafness through cognitive training. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Prioritization of Self-associated Stimuli on Task Switching and Target Shifting 2022, 45(5): 1053-1060.  Abstract ( )   Information associated with the self is prioritized relative to information associated with others and is therefore processed more quickly and accurately. Previous researches have found that self-associated stimuli would rapidly activate self-concept and enhance social attentional orientation in the limited cognitive resources, thus showing the prioritization at the level of perceptual processing. However, the other researchers proposed that the source of the self-bias was more consistent with a response bias rather than a perception bias. Although the conclusions of the above researches are not consistent, it is undeniable that self-associated stimuli have a self-processing bias in attention, memory, and response. Here we used an improved task-switching paradigm to investigate the self-prioritization in the condition of task-switching and target shifting. Based on the task-set reconstruction theory, we investigated the prioritization of self-associated stimuli through the moderating effect of self-associated stimuli on task-switching costs. We further explored the perception bias of self-associated stimuli by comparing the carry-over rate under the condition of target shifting. The present study reported an experiment to assess the prioritization of the self-associated stimuli on task switching and target shifting. We combined an associative learning task with a task-switching task (categorizing judgment task). 27 participants participated in the experiment. In the associative learning task, three geometric shapes (circle, square, & triangle) were randomly assigned to three labels (self, friend, and stranger). Having formed a personal association, participants performed the categorizing judgment task. Participants were predictably informed on the rule of each task by pre-cues. The rules were either "self/ non-self" or "familiar/ unfamiliar". Participants needed to judge which option the shape belongs to. Reaction time and accuracy were measured when participants conducted the tasks and analyzed using repeated-measures analyses of variance (ANOVAs) with 2(judgment: familiarity, ego) ×2(task type: switch, repetition) ×3(association type: self, friend, stranger) as within-subjects variables. Based on the study of Huber-Huber and Anorge (2017), the carry-over rate can be measured by the relative percentage deviation between 〖"RT" 〗_"n-1" and 〖" RT" 〗_"n" , i.e., (〖RT〗_(n-1)-〖RT〗_n)/〖RT〗_n ×100%. Considering the speed-accuracy tradeoff, we performed repeated-measures ANOVA of 2(task type: switch, repetition) ×2(association type: self, stranger) ×2(change type: stick, shift) before and after the self-associated stimulus and the stranger associated stimulus. The above tasks mainly obtained the following results: in the associative learning task, the performance for self-associated shape is superior to that for friend-associated shape (accuracy: p = .001; reaction times: p < .001) and other-associated shape (accuracy: p< .01; reaction times: p< .001). In the categorizing judgment task, none of the associated stimuli showed the task-switching effect. Specifically speaking, no matter what kind of associated stimuli, there is no difference in search performance between switch task and repetition task. But for the carry-over rate, a significant interaction between association type and change type. Specifically speaking, for self-associated stimuli, the carry-over rate with the target sticking is smaller than that with target shifting; for the stranger-associated stimuli (p= .001), the carry-over rate with target sticking was significantly higher than that with target shifting (p< .001). It can draw the following conclusions: self-associated stimuli can regulate the cost of task switching, and quickly focus attention under the condition of target shifting, showing a perception-based specific processing advantage. Related Articles | Metrics

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The influence of predictability, word frequency and stroke number on Chinese word recognition: An eye movement study 2022, 45(5): 1061-1068.  Abstract ( )   Prediction is a fundamental principle underlying human information processing (Clark, 2013; Friston, 2005) and much research supports the existence of predictability effects. But the when question has so far received the least attention (Huettig, 2015). At what stage does the predictability effect occur in word recognition? According to the Interaction Theory, the language processing system of different levels is an interactive processing course. If there is an interaction between two variables, it indicates that the two variables act on the same processing stage at the same time (Danks, 1983). In the present study, eye movement tracking technology was used to investigate the interaction of predictability and word frequency, and the interaction of predictability and stroke number on the processing of word recognition during normal Chinese reading. Based on that, the present study explored the word recognition processing stage where there is an impact of predictability effect. In experiment 1, word frequency was selected as the variable of lexical processing stage and in experiment 2, the stroke number was selected as the variable of the pre-lexical processing stage; the main aim of the experiments was to explore the influence of predictability, word frequency and stroke number on word recognition in normal reading processing. The main effect of predictability, word frequency, and stroke number was found, but the interaction of predictability and word frequency, and the interaction of predictability and stroke number on word recognition were not found. Furthermore, in the present study, there was a significant effect of the predictability. Fixation time of high predictable words was significantly shorter than low predictable words, and the predictability not only affects the early reading time (first fixation time and gaze duration), but also affects the late measures (regression path duration and total reading time), which indicates that predictability effect is a very stable factor of cognitive processing which is able to instantly influence the reader's reading process (Staub, 2011; Rayner et al., 1996). Although there is no interaction of predictability and word frequency and no interaction of predictability and stroke number, the possibility of predictability effect acting independently on the lexical stage or the pre-lexical stage cannot be denied. Secondly, this result also provides a possibility of the predictability effect acting on the post-lexical stage. However, since it is difficult to separate the predictability effect from the semantic integration effect in the post-lexical processing stage, it is difficult to conduct direct verification. Thirdly, according to the results, it is speculated that the predictability effect may also act on the stage which is before the word recognition stage. Previous studies have shown that readers can obtain the semantic, phonetic and orthographic information of high predictable target words through the pre-activation mechanism (Delong et al., 2005; Ito et al., 2016). But further research is needed to confirm this account. To sum up, there is significant effect of predictability, word frequency and stroke number in Chinese reading, which will independently affect the word recognition processing. The results from the present study are more consistent with the research hypothesis of the E-Z reader model. Related Articles | Metrics

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Effect and mechanism of primary insomnia on sleep-dependent memory consolidation 2022, 45(5): 1069-1076.  Abstract ( )   Healthy sleep is implicated in cognitive functioning, especially sleep-dependent memory consolidation (SDC). Insomnia, a common sleep disorder mainly characterized by sleep disturbances, has become a prominent problem in modern society. Its impact on SDC has also attracted increased attention. Therefore, this paper aimed to review previous studies on the effects of primary insomnia (PI) on SDC of different types of memory, and to elucidate the neural mechanism of SDC changes in PI, so as to provide theoretical support for improving the SDC of PI patients. According to previous studies, the influence of PI on SDC mainly focused on declarative memory (semantic memory) and non-declarative memory (procedural memory), and the conclusions seem to be inconsistent. Generally speaking, SDC of procedural memory was found to be more susceptible to PI, while the influence of PI on SDC of declarative memory was relatively mild. Most existing studies found that PI patients had greater impairment in procedural memory consolidation than healthy sleepers. However, only one study showed that SDC of declarative memory in patients with PI was defective. Moreover, SDC of declarative memory in patients with PI was more vulnerable to interference learning than that of procedural memory. The differences in experimental design, SDC paradigm type, first-night effect, sample characteristics, and sleep structure may be the reasons for this inconsistency. To date, the mechanisms of the effects of PI on the SDC of declarative and procedural memories are still unclear. Some polysomnographic studies have demonstrated that the influence of PI on SDC is linked to certain macrostructures and microstructures of sleep. Specifically, a previous study showed that the amount of slow wave sleep (SWS) decreased significantly in PI patients, and the compensatory increase in rapid eye movement sleep (REM) had a positive correlation with SDC of declarative memory in patients. In another study, PI patients had a diminished amount of REM, but there was no correlation between SDC impairments of procedural memory and REM in the PI group. Furthermore, no SWS compensation was observed in patients, indicating that REM may play an irreplaceable role in SDC of procedural memory. In addition, the damage of different functional brain regions in insomnia patients may hinder SDC of declarative or procedural memory, which is mainly due to the relationships between SDC of different memory types and different brain structures. However, there is no direct evidence to support this hypothesis. Overall, based on the disruption of sleep structure and abnormal brain structures in insomnia patients and the relationships between these changes and SDC in PI, it can be speculated that the effect of PI on SDC of declarative and procedural memories could be consistent with the system consolidation hypothesis and synaptic homeostasis hypothesis. In essence, the potential brain mechanisms of PI on SDC are dependent on system consolidation and synaptic consolidation. Future studies could be conducted on the synchronous acquisition of behavioral, electroencephalographic, and brain imaging data to explore the neural pathways of SDC associated with insomnia, and on the prevention and treatment of SDC impairment in patients with PI through transcranial current stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation, or targeted memory reactivation. Related Articles | Metrics

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Intolerance of Uncertainty and Worry: An Investigation of Memory Bias and Interpretation Bias 2022, 45(5): 1077-1084.  Abstract ( )   Intolerance of uncertainty (IU) was defined as a dispositional character, which could impact individuals’ emotional, cognitive and behavioral response towards uncertain information and situations. IU was found significantly related to individual’s level of worry, and one possible reason is that people who are intolerant of uncertainty have information processing bias toward uncertainty. The purpose of this study was to examine whether this hypothesis is reasonable, specifically, including memory bias for uncertain information and interpretative bias for uncertain situations. In addition, the mediated effect of memory bias and interpretation bias was analyzed. An incidental learning task was used in Study 1 to examine the relationship between IU and the recall of words denoting uncertainty, as well as the mediated effect of memory bias among the relationship between IU and worry. 103 undergraduate and postgraduate participated in the experiment of study 1. At the end of the experiment, participants finished four scales which measured IU, trait worry, depression and anxiety. Vignette task was used in study 2 to explore participants’ interpretation bias, as well as the mediated effect of interpretation bias among the relationship between IU and worry and the moderated effect of gender. One hundred and five undergraduate and postgraduate, who hadn’t participated in study 1, were asked to report their level of worry and interpretations of each uncertain situation. These participants also finished the IUS-12 used in study 1 to report their level of intolerance of uncertainty. Data analyses were conducted in SPSS 23.0. The result of study 1 did not support the hypothesis that IU would be a significant predictor of memory bias for uncertain stimuli. The mediated effect of memory bias was also not significant. These results were not consistent with the existing studies. This may due to the different attitudes towards uncertainty between Eastern and Western culture, which were shaped by the wholistic thinking and analytical thinking respectively. In study 2, IU could positively predict participants’ level of worry in uncertain situations and the mediated effect of interpretative bias was significant, while the moderated effect of gender was not significant. These results supported the hypothesis that individuals with high IU would interpretate uncertain situation as negative and threatened, which leaded to their high level of worry. However, the relationship between IU and interpretation was universal for female and male. The different coping styles of male and female may be the reason for different level of worry between these two groups instead of their different interpretations. The general results showed that people who are intolerant of uncertainty may have information processing bias towards uncertain information and situations. For clinical populations, psychotherapists could try to increase their tolerance of uncertainty, which may reduce the negative affect their experienced such as worry and anxiety. Psychotherapists could help people to clarify that the presence of uncertainty may not be equivalent with danger and threat. Besides, exposure therapy could help people learn to tolerate uncertainty by exposing to uncertainty. And last, psychotherapist could also encourage people to be willing to accept the uncertainty of the world. Related Articles | Metrics

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New evidence for different views of task switching 2022, 45(5): 1085-1091.  Abstract ( )   Task switching is an important component of executive functions. Switch costs refer to the differences in reaction times and error rates between switch and repeat conditions, theoretical explanations of which include task-set inertia, task-set reconfiguration, and associative retrieval. The task-set inertia account claims that task-set still remains after a task has been implemented, and this task-set inertia is the key element to give rise to switch costs. Strong evidence for the task-set inertia account came from studies that found n-2 repetition costs (backward inhibition), i.e. longer reaction times in n-2 repetition trials (ABA) than in n-2 switch trials (CBA). In recent years, the task-set inertia account has been supported by new evidence, but the nature of inhibition was questioned. Decrease of alpha power during task switching confirmed that inhibition is an important process of task switching. Nevertheless, some studies replicated n-2 repetition costs, but pointed out the nature of backward inhibition might be proactive control, not reactive control as traditional views deemed. The task-set reconfiguration account proposes that endogenous control is needed to change tasks, which may include shifting attention between task-sets, retrieving task goals and rules into working memory, enabling a different response-set. Main evidence for the reconfiguration account came from studies that found preparation effect, an effect that switch costs decrease as preparation time increases. However, switch costs cannot be fully eliminated by preparation, and thus the cause of the residual switch costs must be probed. There are two reconfiguration models to explain the residual switch costs: two-stage model and all-or-none model. In recent years, the reconfiguration account has been supported by a series of studies. Studies that explored hierarchical effect in task switching indicated reconfiguration is a necessary process as it takes longer time to switch upward than switch downward. Some studies compared switch costs following preparation and following performance, and found that preparation alone is sufficient to drive subsequent switch costs, but performance drives more, consistent with the two-stage model. The reconfiguration account has also been supported by the increased theta power in switch conditions, since theta power is supposed to reflect top-down cognitive control. According to the associative retrieval account, switch costs are the results of competition between potentially relevant tasks, e.g. competition between different S-R associations. In recent years, several studies have developed the associative retrieval account, revealing sizable effects of stimulus repetition, response repetition and cue repetition, and controlling of these effects reduced switch costs. In other words, episodic retrieval and associative learning may play an important role in task switching. All of these views have been supported by new studies in recent years, yet none is sufficient to explain all the effects of task switching. Although the task-set reconfiguration account and the task-set inertia account diverge on the issue of proactive control and reactive control, both of them acknowledge the role of higher-order control processes during task switching, while the associative retrieval account challenges it and favors a simpler explanation. To resolve the controversies, the task-set reconfiguration account and the task-set inertia account should be examined more strictly, with episodic retrieval confounds controlled, and the associative retrieval account needs more experimental evidence, especially evidence for neural mechanisms. It is most likely that all these views tell partial understanding of a full story. Therefore, integrated models that reflect influences from key parameters may be constructed in the future. Related Articles | Metrics

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Modeling of the effect on multidimensional latent speeds in the between-item multidimensional response time 2022, 45(5): 1222-1229.  Abstract ( )   With the popularity of computer-based testings, it is easier to collect item response times (RTs) in psychological and educational assessments. RTs can provide an important source of information for respondents and tests. Accordingly, RTs can help in evaluating the speed of respondents, detecting cheating behaviors and designing better tests. RTs can also be used for improving the accuracy of parameter estimation and others. To full use of RTs, researchers have invested substantial effort in developing statistical models of RTs. Most of the proposed models posit a unidimensional latent speed to account for RTs in tests. However, there are many multidimensional tests in psychological and educational assessments. Based on the assumption that each latent speed should be paired with a specific latent ability in multidimensional tests, a multidimensional lognormal response time model (MLRT) model was proposed with extended the unidimensional lognormal response time model (ULRTM). In multidimensional tests, there are between-item and within-item multidimensionality. There may be effects between different latent speeds in the between-item multidimensionality. MLRTM may not be appropriate for this situation. To capture the effect between different latent speeds, this study proposed higher-order lognormal response time model (HO-LRTM) and bifactor lognormal response time model (Bi-LRTM) based on the corresponding response model. Model parameters in the HO-LRTM and Bi-LRTM can be estimated via maximum likelihood estimation in Mplus. In the simulation study, the results showed that the parameters of HO-LRTM and Bi-LRTM can be accurately estimated. In empirical data, three sets (A, C and D) were chose from the Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices. Each set has 12 items. Firstly, RTs were explored the structure of latent speed by the empirical kaiser criterion (EKC) and exploratory factor analysis (EFA). The results of the EKC and EFA indicated that the latent structure of RTs is a three-dimensional structure. Secondly, according to the different fit indices, the Bi-LRTM fits better than other models. Furthermore, it is necessary to free speed-slope parameters in the response time models by comparing the fitting effect of fixed and free the parameters. Finally, this study assessed unidimensionality of Bi-LRTM based on some statistical indices. These statistical indices showed the necessity of general and specific latent speed in the Bi-LRTM. Overall, the proposed Bi-LRTM works well in simulation study and empirical data. That is, considering the effect on multidimensional latent speeds meets the need for analyzing the between-item multidimensional response time. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Investigating the Acceptable Noninvariance Rate of Alignment – A Monte Carlo Simulation Study Qiuheng Shi 2022, 45(5): 1230-1242.  Abstract ( )   Traditional multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis (multiple-group CFA) is usually criticized for having a too restrictive model assumption, namely the exact scalar measurement invariance. A new multiple-group analysis methodology, alignment, evaluates approximate measurement invariance of the model parameters and, more importantly, permits factor mean comparisons without imposing scalar invariance which is usually required in multiple-group CFA. Previous simulation studies – of Asparouhov and Muthén, as well as of Flake and McCoach – chose specific noninvariance rates only to justify the performance of alignment under certain specific conditions. In contrast, this current simulation study aimed to investigate the noninvariance rate ranges of alignment more broadly in both one-factor and three-factor models. By gradually increasing or decreasing the noninvariant model parameters, the results show that the acceptable noninvariance rate of alignment in one-factor models can attain 100% when the average group size is large enough and the identification option is fixed alignment. Meanwhile, in three-factor models, the acceptable noninvariance rate of alignment ranges from 20% to 30%. Alignment is able to obtain accurate parameter estimates when the magnitude of noninvariance is large and when there are three groups involved with either 10% noninvariant intercepts + 20% noninvariant factor loadings, or 17% noninvariant intercepts + 10% noninvariant factor loadings. However, when there are 20% noninvariant intercepts + 10% noninvariant factor loadings, the results fail to meet the four standards of accurate parameter estimation as proposed in this study. Therefore, in this condition, acceptable noninvariance rate of alignment ranges from 27% to 30% (i.e., 17% noninvariant intercepts + 10% noninvariant factor loadings to 10% noninvariant intercepts + 20% noninvariant factor loadings). Using the same procedure, we found that alignment obtains accurate parameter estimates when the magnitude of noninvariance is large and the amount of groups is nine, with 17% noninvariant intercepts + 10% noninvariant factor loadings. Thus, in this condition, the acceptable noninvariance rate is below 27% (i.e., 17% noninvariant intercepts + 10% noninvariant factor loadings). When the magnitude of noninvariance is large and the amount of groups is 15, using the same previous procedures, we found that the acceptable noninvariance rate is below 27% (17% noninvariant intercepts + 10% noninvariant factor loadings). When the magnitude of noninvariance is large and the amount of groups is 30, the acceptable noninvariance rate is below 20% (10% noninvariant intercepts + 10% noninvariant factor loadings). In three-factor models, when the magnitude of noninvariance is small and there are three groups, by once again using the same procedures, we concluded that the acceptable noninvariance rate is below 23% (13% noninvariant intercepts + 10% noninvariant factor loadings). When the magnitude of noninvariance is small and there are nine groups, we conclude that the acceptable noninvariance rate is below 20% (10% noninvariant intercepts + 10% noninvariant factor loadings). When the magnitude of noninvariance is small and the amount of groups is 15, the acceptable noninvariance rate is also below 20% (10% noninvariant intercepts + 10% noninvariant factor loadings). When the magnitude of noninvariance is small and there are 30 groups, the acceptable noninvariance rate is below 20% (10% noninvariant intercepts + 10% noninvariant factor loadings). In summary, within the noninvariance rate ranges of 20% to 30% in alignment three-factor models, the noninvariant parameters with a large magnitude of noninvariance demonstrate a clearer pattern of noninvariance and are more easily identified, signifying that alignment allows for more large noninvariant parameters. When the amount of groups decreases from 30, 15 or nine to three, alignment functions with more noninvariant parameters. Previous simulation studies on alignment have not investigated noninvariance rate ranges under different simulation conditions, instead only considering certain specific noninvariance rates. This current study, then, adds to the literature by investigating a broader range of noninvariance rate ranges. Related Articles | Metrics

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Associations between Time Management Disposition, Mobile Phone Dependence and Boredom Proneness in College Freshmen: A Cross-Lagged Study Wen-Tao Lin Tong Zhao 2022, 45(5): 1214-1221.  Abstract ( )   More and more investigations and phenomena show that the group of college students are bored for a long time, and it is more common for the group of freshmen to feel boredom. Freshman year is a critical period of personal development. If freshmen cannot adjust their tendency to become boredom in a timely manner, boredom will have many adverse effects on their physical and mental development. On the one hand, bored individuals are often accompanied by the urge to escape this state, often using mobile phones to obtain new stimuli to escape the boring experience, thereby increasing the risk of college students' mobile phone dependence. In addition, individuals with high levels of boredom lack the motivation and vitality to do things, and their poor perception of time is also not conducive to individuals' effective management of time. On the other hand, many freshmen are faced with the problem of adapting to time management. They often passively carry out activities that they are not interested in to kill time, so it is difficult to experience the sense of time flowing, which makes the boredom more serious. Therefore, for college freshmen, it is worthy of our in-depth consideration to explore whether they become a high-incidence group of boredom due to" improper means to alleviate boredom" or" incompetence in time management during the transition period". At present, most studies have failed to explore the causal relationship between these key variables, and there are few longitudinal studies on these three variables to find out the causal order or mutual relationship between the variables. Therefore, this study adopts the cross-lag design to explore the development trends of freshmen' s time management disposition, boredom Proneness, mobile phone dependence and the interaction mechanism between them. The test starts after the military training is completed, and is retested after a month interval, a total of three measurements. The participants are freshmen from two undergraduate colleges in Shanxi Province. Each participant filled out the Adolescent Time Management Disposition Scale, Boredom Proneness Scale, and Mobile Phone Dependency Index Scale each time. After deleting lost participants and invalid questionnaires, a total of 425 valid questionnaires were obtained. Finally, SPSS25.0 and AMOS22.0 were used for data analysis, including repeated measurement variance analysis, correlation analysis and path analysis of cross-lag model. The results of the study found that: (1) At three time points, there is a significant negative correlation between time management disposition and boredom proneness, and boredom proneness and mobile phone dependence are significantly positively correlated; (2) The boredom proneness at T1 and T2 can positively predicts the mobile phone dependence at T2 and T3 respectively, and also can negatively predicts the time management disposition at T2 and T3 respectively; The time management disposition at T1 can negatively predicts the boredom proneness at T2, the mobile phone dependence at T2 can positively predicts the boredom proneness at T3. Therefore, the boredom proneness as a more stable antecedent variable enlightens us to pay attention to the boredom proneness of freshmen and intervene in time to avoid it causing more adverse effects. At the beginning of the semester, we should help students improve their time management disposition and avoid the deterioration of their boring proneness. To deal with students' mobile phone dependence, prevention should be the first priority, and students should develop good mobile phone habits to avoid negative effects on the boredom proneness. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Black-White Metaphor on College Students' Integrity 2022, 45(5): 1166-1173.  Abstract ( )   Abstract:Conceptual metaphor theory (CMT) holds that the formation of abstract concepts needs to be based on embodied movement or perceptual experience. The CMT points to the mapping between the source domain and the target domain. Source domains are usually concrete cognitive domains, whereas target domains are usually abstract cognitive domains. Those mappings are mostly based on direct human experiences or indirect experiences passed down by our ancestors. Thus, metaphors are in nature our past concrete experience domains that we are familiar with, used to understand the new abstract experience domains that we are unfamiliar with. Metaphor is cultural and thus, need to be understood with specific cultural backgrounds. In other word, people’s embodied experience of the metaphor concepts is largely influenced by cultural experiences. In different cultures, metaphors may carry different meanings. Integrity, as one of the most representative characteristics of the morality domain, and its connection with CMT has not enjoyed much investigation and need to be further discussed. Metaphor has its cultural aspect, and the colors, black and white, also endures high complexity during their interpretation under both the Western and the Eastern cultural backgrounds. There is commonness as well as differences. The color black endures negative meanings, such as mystery, darkness, sullenness and sorrow, in both the Eastern and the Western cultures; White, instead, has positive meanings such as purity, cleanliness, death and uselessness. In Chinese culture, “白” which is the character for “white” has other meanings; “白丁” refers to uneducated people or the commoners; “白食” refers to free food. Furthermore, in Peking Opera, colors of the facial makeup are used mainly to represent personality and morality. For example, black mask represents integrity, plain-speaking and recklessness and the most iconic characters for which are Bao Zheng, Li Kui, and Zhang Fei. Whereas white represents deceitfulness and paranoia, and is also the color for the crafty and sycophant courtier and snobs, with Cao Cao and Yan Song as the most representative characters. To sum up, the black-and-white color metaphor has commonness and also differences under different linguistic backgrounds The abstract concept of integrity(moral) has close connection with black and white in different cultures, which means the perception of black and white are the boundary of integrity. In order to detect the character of embodied metaphor between black/white and integrity among Chinese group, three experiments were designed to test the implicit association between black/white and integrity, as well as the metaphorical priming effects of explicit and real experienced lightness (vs. darkness). In the results, black/white not only exclusively associated with integrity, but also significantly affected participants’ selection preference, showing more choices with integrity in white background, while more choices with dishonesty in black background. However, our participants only showed "darkness-dishonesty" metaphorical connection in real lightness and darkness situations, meaning that the brightness of the environment did not affect the integrity behavior, whereas the dark environment would increase the dishonesty behavior. Overall, our experiments showed that, for Chinese group, integrity is "white" and dishonesty is "black" in cognitive conditions, while in real environment, only "darkness-dishonesty" metaphor was significant. The influence of culture on the development of embodied metaphors was discussed. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Social Exclusion on Consumer Choice: The Moderating Role of Nostalgia and Mediating Role of Social Connectedness 2022, 45(5): 1174-1181.  Abstract ( )   It is usual for individual to feel socially excluded. As an unpleasant experience, social exclusion could result in adverse effect on individual’s cognitive, physical and psychological functions. Social exclusion refers to a feeling of being ignored, rejected or isolated by other individuals or social groups. Previous studies have shown that individuals generally resort to consumption to alleviate the negative effects of social exclusion, for example, they have a preference for unique products and anthropomorphic products after being socially excluded. Van Boven & Gilovich (2003) classified purchases into two types. Experiential purchases refer to those made with the main purpose of obtaining life experience such as watching a movie and going to a concert while material purchases refer to those made with the main purpose of obtaining a tangible good such as buying accessories and clothes. However, so far there are few studies attempting to examine the effect of social exclusion on experiential purchase and material purchase. The current research aims to explore the effect of social exclusion on experiential purchase and material purchase. Meanwhile, this research also interested in investigating the factors that might moderates the effects of social exclusion on experiential purchase and material purchase and factors that might mediate the moderating effects. Study 1a and 1b respectively used a single factor (social exclusion vs. social inclusion) between-subject design to explore the effects of social exclusion on experiential purchase. Participants were asked to take times to imagine that they were the protagonist of the story and reported which consumption activity (experiential purchase or material purchase) to get involved after reading the story. In study 2, a two factor (social exclusion vs. social inclusion; nostalgia vs. control) between-subject design were employed to investigate the moderating role of nostalgia and mediating role of social connectedness. Participants were randomly assigned to the included group or the excluded group. Social exclusion and inclusion were manipulated in the same way as study 1. Right after the exclusion or inclusion manipulation there was another task requiring participants to recall a nostalgic event or an ordinary event in order to manipulate nostalgia. Participants were also randomly assigned to nostalgic group and control group. Then they were required to report their feelings of social connectedness and decide which purchase (experiential purchase or material purchase) to have. Our findings are as follows：(1) Compared with those who are socially included, socially excluded individuals are more likely to have experiential purchase over material purchase. (2) Nostalgia moderates the effect of social exclusion on purchase. Specifically, after being socially excluded, there is a significant difference on the purchase decision between nostalgic individuals and control ones. Participants in the control group prefer to choose experiential purchase more than nostalgic individuals. However, for those who are socially included, there is no significant difference on purchase decision between nostalgic group and control one. (3) Social connectedness mediates this moderation effect. Taken together, these findings indicate that socially excluded consumers have a tendency towards experiential purchase, which enriches the researches of the antecedent of experiential purchase and the consequence of social exclusion. Furthermore, it reveals an important underlying mechanism to cope with the negative influence of social exclusion. Related Articles | Metrics

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Social Isolation and Cognitive Function among Chinese Older Adults: Chain Mediating Effects of Loneliness and Depression 2022, 45(5): 1182-1189.  Abstract ( )   Decline of cognitive function is considered as a part of normal ageing, and it may increase the risks of dementia and disability. A growing interest lies in exploring the risk factors and influence mechanisms of cognitive function. Social isolation is an object state caused by the lack of social connections, and is regarded as a huge risk factors determining cognitive function among older adults. A large amount of quantitative studies have proposed the evidences that social isolation is negatively associated with cognitive function among western older adults. However, no study explores the relationship among Chinese older adults, whose social connections patterns are different from western. This study hypothesizes that social isolation is negatively associated with cognitive function among Chinese older adults. Few studies explore the influence mechanisms between social isolation and cognitive function. The psychological mechanism of cognitive function proposes the point that negative emotions may cause the limitation of hippocampal and further triggers the cognitive function impairment. Loneliness and depression are typical negative emotions among older adults, and amounts of quantitative evidences support their negative impacts on cognitive function. Besides, social isolation means few social connections and is the predictor factor of loneliness and depression. Therefore, this study hypothesizes that loneliness and depression play mediating roles between social isolation and cognitive function among older adults. Furthermore, numerous studies support the significant association between loneliness and depression. Therefore, this study also hypothesizes that loneliness and depression play a chain mediating effect between social isolation and cognitive function. The 2014 wave of China Longitudinal Aging Social Survey (CLASS) was employed in this study. After excluding those samples with missing data of key variables, a total number of 5,162 older adults were selected. SPSS 20.0 and AMOS 20.0 were used in this study to analyze data. At first, this study examined the common method deviation analysis. Secondly, this study reported the descriptive results and the correlation analysis between main variables. Thirdly, this study constructed structural equation models (SEM) and tested the mediating effects. The results are as follows: (1) social isolation is significantly associated with older adults’ cognitive function. (2) depression plays a mediating role in the relationship between social isolation and cognitive function, while the mediating role of loneliness isn’t significant. (3) loneliness and depression play a chain mediating role in the relationship between social isolation and cognitive function. Some theoretical and practical contributions are proposed in this study. This study expands the existing research related to the association between social isolation and cognitive function among Chinese older adults, and also contributes to understanding their underlying mechanism through paying attention to the psychological mechanism of cognitive function. In addition, the results have some important implications, it’s urgent and necessary to take measures to cope the huge challenges of social isolation on older adults’ cognitive function. Depression is a crucial mediating mechanism that understand the relationship between social isolation and cognitive function, thus it’s important to screen and diagnose older adults’ depression. The chain mediating effect also reminds us to take measures to reduce loneliness and block the negative effects of social isolation on cognitive function. Related Articles | Metrics

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An Indigenous Research on Social Bias of Evaluating the Obese People 2022, 45(5): 1190-1197.  Abstract ( )   The obese people are regarded as the last socially acceptable stigma group in western society, prejudice and discrimination against them are widespread and open. In the past 30 years, the proportion of obese people in China has doubled, ranked the first in the world. Obese people may not only face more personal health crisis, but also have to face more social psychological crisis. It's worth noting that there are relatively few indigenous researches on the social bias in the perspective of "how people view them" at present. Therefore, this study explores the basic problems of social bias such as stereotype, prejudice and discrimination of obese people in the current society. Stereotype belongs to social cognitive bias, pprejudice is the emotional response bias based on stereotype, while discrimination is the behavioural bias based on stereotype and prejudice. They are three closely related concepts in social bias. Accordingly, the present research consisted of three studies. Study 1 interested in the public perception of the characteristics of obese people by comparing qualitative and quantitative stereotypes of obese people. Study 2 used the Feeling Thermometer Scale and Affect Misattribution Procedure (AMP) to explored the explicit and implicit attitude of obese people. Study 3 compared circumstances of the obese people in four common life situations (recruitment, taking taxt, dining and group tour), and investigated people's discrimination (behaviour tendency) towards obese people. The results show that: (1) People's trait nominations for obese people show a lot of positive traits of "high warmth", but rarely involvee the dimension of competence.The top 10 traits are: lovely, kindness, optimism, open, humorous, gentleness, mild, energetic, truthful and lively. Interestingly, the prototype of obese people is “ happy young man”. The quantitative stereotype evaluation of obese people shows moderate warmth and low competence. (2) The explicit attitude towards obese people is positive, while the implicit attitude is relatively negative. In short, people have implicit prejudice against obese people. (3) Compared to normal-sized people, the obese people encounter more uunfavourable treatments, and the situation of female obese people is the worst. From the view of indigenous culture, Chinese people's social bias towards obese people is complex and mixed generally. Chinese people have positive feeling to obese people in a certain extent, which is inconsistent with the results of European or American research on the "socially acceptable stigma group" of obese people. However, discrimination against obese people is still very common, especially when obesity combined with gender, discrimination is cross-situational. This complexity may stem from the cultural differences between China and other countries. When evaluating others or other groups, Chinese people consciously or even unconsciously to maintain the balance of interpersonal relationship. Primarily, obesity may has an unique cultural meaning in the mind of Chinese people.The obese people are often described as rich and affluence, and it always seems to have "a good life with few worries". On the other side of the shield, the world trend of taking obesity as ugliness and disease, may influence people’s behaviour preference toward obese people. This research is conducted from the perspective of "how do people view obese people", which may helps to clarify people's impressions, evaluations and behavioral tendencies towards obese people in indigenous culture. Related Articles | Metrics

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Impact of Situation Openness and Individual’s Impression Management Motivation on Advice Taking 2022, 45(5): 1198-1205.  Abstract ( )   Advice-taking has always been a research hotspot in the field of decision making. From perspectives of information processing, researchers have proposed a variety of theories for explaining mechanisms of advice discounting, including anchoring and adjustment, egocentric bias and information asymmetry theory. Advice taking can also be defined as a form of interpersonal interaction, suggesting that decision makers may also consider how whether they follow advice or not affects others’ evaluations and impressions of them. Studies have approved that individuals can aware that others form impressions of themselves based on the outcomes of their decisions. This phenomenon is referred to as meta-perception or as judgments on "how others view us". Further research has found that because individuals are aware that others form their own impressions based on the results of their own decisions, they strategically adjust their decision-making strategies to make an ideal impression and in turn achieve goals of impression management. So we suggested that decision makers may adopt or reject others’suggestions in order to gain some impression, that is, the motivation of impression management will affect the adoption of advice. Impression management is that people use their social behavior as a means of communicating information about (or an image of) themselves to others. Such "self-presentation" is aimed at establishing, maintaining, or refining an image of the individual in the minds of others. Situation is the premise of impression management. The degree of impression management varies with the public and private of the situation. The more open the situation, the more need for impression management. Because the motivation of impression management includes two aspects: impression formation and impression maintenance, two parallel experiments were designed in this paper. Study 1 discusses the influence of impression establishing in advice-taking, study 2 discusses the influence of impression maintaining in advice-taking. In study 1, a 2 (expectation impression: warmth, competence)×2 (situation openness: public, private) between- subjects experiment was designed. Subjects were asked to imagine themselves participating in an interview under public and private conditions. According to the characteristics required by the job, the subjects formed different expectations impression. The purpose is to explore the influence of impression formation on advice-taking. In study 2, we also used a 2 (impression label: warmth, competence)×2 (situation openness: public, private) between-subjects experiment design to explore the influence of impression maintenance on advice-taking. Subjects are told that they need to take a personality test to label their warmth competence. The results are as follows: 1. Expectation impression will affect the advice-taking. In public condition, when individuals want to form a warm impression, they will adopt more advice. When individuals want to form an impression of competence, they will adopt less advice. 2. Self-labeling will affect the advice-taking. In public condition, when individuals want to maintain the original warm impression, the weight of advice is higher than that want to maintain the original competence impression. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Childhood Psychological Abuse and Neglect on Suicidal Ideation: The Roles of Alexithymia and Search for Meaning 2022, 45(5): 1206-1213.  Abstract ( )   Suicide is a leading cause of death worldwide. In China, each year about 100000 people died of suicide, and adolescent suicide remains a serious problem. Suicidal ideation is a precondition for implementation of suicidal behavior, and recently more and more researchers begin to pay close attention to this link and its influences. Among them, the early family environment and personality factors make important contributions for predicting adolescent suicide ideation. From the point of development, early family environment determines the development of children's cognitive schema and personality structure, directly or indirectly affects the incidence of adolescent suicidal ideation. Furthermore, according to the theory of the buffering hypothesis of suicide, in addition to risk factors, there are also protective factors, which can effectively adjust the influence of risk factors for suicidal ideation. Search for meaning represents the human motivation and efforts to seek the sense of importance in life, and is regarded as a protective factor for preventing suicidal ideation. Therefore, we hope to explore the influences of childhood psychological abuse and neglect and alexithymia on suicidal ideation, as well as the role of protective factor – search for meaning in it. The study collected self-reported data from 1,074 high school students belonging to three high schools in Heilongjiang, Liaoning and Yunnan. Childhood psychological abuse and neglect was measured by the Psychological Abuse and Neglect Scale consisted of 31 items. Alexithymia was measured by the Toronto Alexithymia Scale consisted of 20 items. Suicidal ideation was measured by the Chinese version of Positive and Negative Suicide Ideation consisted of 14 items. Search for meaning was measured by the Search for Meaning Subscale in The Chinese version of the Sense of Meaning in Life, this subscale is consisted of 5 items. The results indicated that: (1) Childhood psychological abuse and neglect positively predicted suicidal ideation; (2) Childhood psychological abuse and neglect influenced suicidal ideation through the mediating role of alexithymia; (3) Search for meaning moderated the direct path of the mediation model (β = -.16, p < .001). With the increasing of Search for meaning level, the effect of childhood psychological abuse and neglect on suicidal ideation gradually decreases. (4) Search for meaning moderates the second half path of the mediation model, yet the results are gender–dependent in adolescents. Specifically, with the increasing of search for meaning level, the effect of childhood psychological abuse and neglect on adolescent males’ suicidal ideation gradually decreases (β = -.14, p < .01), while the effect of childhood psychological abuse and neglect on adolescent females’ group suicidal ideation did not change significantly (β = -.01, p > .05). These findings reveal the mechanism about how childhood psychological abuse and neglect do impact suicidal ideation, as well as the protective role of search for meaning in the mechanism. Overall, besides of highlighting the tremendous impacts of early family environment and personality factors on adolescents’ suicidal ideation, the study provides a direction for dealing with suicide problem that is encouraging adolescents to explore the meaning of things, as it provides an endogenous motivation to get rid of negative cognition and emotional distress. Related Articles | Metrics

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Technology Trap and Moral Hazard of Natural Language Processing in Predicting Depression Ya-Ting Ding 2022, 45(5): 1267-1272.  Abstract ( )   With the rise of the Internet, more depression patients tend to post tweets with depression signals on social networking platforms. The traditional test method takes a long time and consumes a large quantities of manpower and material resources through face-to-face questionnaire measurement. Because of the stigma, economic pressure or other reasons, most depression patients are reluctant to carry out formal detection and diagnosis in the professional hospital. Through the user language detection on twitter, Facebook, microblog and other large-scale social networking platforms, it not only has the advantages of lower price and convenience, but also can timely detect users' depression tendency and status, and can make early warning for self injury and suicide behavior, so that more users can learn to identify their own psychological status. Based on the text information of social platform, with the help of natural language process (NLP), scholars extract and summarize the characteristics of users such as "self focus", "more simple sentences", "negative language", etc., and establish prediction models to analyze and process the text information, which can predict the potential depression of users, and link related information or medical resources. Due to the particularity of depression users, their information is highly sensitive. Improper handling of privacy information leakage will cause secondary harm to patients. At the same time, due to the immaturity of natural language processing technology and the incompatibility with social platform technology, the detection results are inaccurate, such as algorithm bias and information misjudgment. The development of technology is inseparable from the support of capital. There is a huge business value chain behind the growing number of depression groups. The marketization of science and technology can not only improve the accuracy of prediction technology, but also make science and technology comply with the interest oriented drive. Criminals use more high-tech means to unconsciously abuse user information for accurate advertising, and even maliciously exaggerate patients' diseases Love is for profiteering. At present, the relevant laws and regulations have been issued at home and abroad, but in the face of the rapid development of artificial intelligence, the existing laws and regulations can only give a framework explanation to the existing laws and regulations, which can not provide better specific guidance methods for solving the ethical dilemma or give a clear definition of rights and responsibilities. Ethical problems are likely to occur in the collection, processing and use of user information. How to coordinate such problems will directly affect the development of the whole industry. In the future direction of the combination of artificial intelligence and medicine, how to use NLP in a better way and avoid a series of ethical problems in the operation process will be very necessary and urgent. From the micro level, it can regulate the NLP to predict the depression programming operation of social platform, and at the macro level, avoiding complex ethical issues from multiple related parties can make science and technology better serve people rather than further deprive and plunder of the spiritual world in the name of science and technology. Related Articles | Metrics

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Application of Grounded Theory: Misconceptions and Strategies Dian-Zhi LIU 2022, 45(5): 1273-1279.  Abstract ( )   The application of grounded theory in social sciences is on the rise, but the misconceptions and difficulties in its application constrain the quality of researches. The purpose of this systematic review is to provide a reference for practical studies through the clarifications of common misconceptions in the application of grounded theory and proposals of specific strategies for the difficulties in its use. There are differences in the epistemology, ontology, and techniques of different versions of the grounded theory, but there are commonalities in the core principles. On the ground of these core facets, this article dissects the common misconceptions about using grounded theory. The misconceptions discussed here are as follows. Misconception 1: some studies of grounded theory neglect theory generation and narrow systemic methodology to coding procedures. Theories have explanatory power beyond description, so the application of grounded theory should focus on theoretical pursuits. The systemic methods can facilitate the theory generation more than the local method, so applying grounded theory should strengthen the systemic quality. Misconception 2: many researchers confuse theoretical sampling with purposive or initial sampling. Equating purposive sampling with theoretical sampling confuses the concept of different categories. It ignores the uniqueness of the theoretical focus of theoretical sampling, which means they cannot be used as synonymous terms. The theoretical sampling proceeds based on data analysis, but the initial sampling collects initial information. They are not the equivalents. Misconception 3: some researchers equate theoretical saturation with data saturation. The data saturation often manifests as repetition of data, while the theory saturation finds out varying patterns to the maximum and emphasizes the thickness of categories and theories. On this ground, it cannot be equated with frequency counting or data saturation. Misconception 4: some researchers often downplay memo writing and constant comparison but exaggerates mechanical coding. The memo writing and constant comparison promote category generation and theory development. The mechanical coding disengages from the actual conditions of researches. The coding procedure of grounded theory is not an unchanging formula; it needs increased attention on memo writing and constant comparison. Targeting the increased comprehensibility and accessibility of the grounded theory for the Novice, this article analyzes the strategies to apply its core principles through case analysis. These strategies proposed are as follows. (1)Conduct the theoretical sampling through diverse forms such as concept identification, continuous inquiry, identification of new locations, and participants characteristics. (2) Judge the theoretical saturation based on conceptual density, logical relationships between categories, and theoretical explanatory power. (3) Facilitate the appropriate coding procedure through compliance with the coding prescription and flexibility, group dialogue. (4) Write the memo in the form of free or thematic writing，with the help of a figure and table. (5) Carry out the constant comparison through similarities and differences, longitudinal and horizontal, back and forth comparison. Given the current misconceptions and difficulties in grounded theory study, this article proposes that research on applying grounded theory should focus on systematicity, standardization, and flexibility. In addition, researchers should develop diverse strategies to promote theory generation in the future based on the core principles of grounded theory and research practice. Related Articles | Metrics

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The effect of reward and loss on decision-making under risk in male heroin abstainers 2022, 45(5): 1259-1266.  Abstract ( )   Abstract Drug addiction is a chronic relapsing disorder characterized by compulsive drug use, despite a series of serious negative consequences for personal and social. This characteristic of this population indicates that drug addiction may be associated with decision-making defects. A large number of experimental results have demonstrated that drug users are more inclined to choose high rewards with small probability compared with small rewards with high probability in decision-making under risk. However, little research has been designed to investigate the impact of decision-making frame (gains vs losses) on decision-making under risk of substance users. This study aim to dissociate the risky decision making pattern of heroin abstainers under reward and loss condition. Especially considering the low education degree for heroin addicts in China and deficits in executive function, we used a novel gambling task (toronto gambling task, TGT) to assess specific abnormal decision-making behavior under two different frames. Seventy participants (35 male heroin users during their abstinence period and 35 normal controls) performed a modified version of TGT to investigate whether heroin abstainers’ risky decision-making behavior was modulated by reward and loss conditions. This gambling task was consisted of five cards in each trial. One of the five cards displayed a gold ingot/ bomb on it, whereas the other cards were blank. Participants were instructed to find the card with the gold ingot in reward condition and avoid the card with the bomb in loss condition. Participants were asked to select a number of cards ranging from one card up to five cards. In addition, there were two order conditions in this gambling task (“Add” and “Subtract”). In the “Add” condition, card was added to the display from left to right, and the time interval for each card is 2 s; In the “Subtract” condition, all five cards were initially presented and the cards disappeared every 2 s from right to left. Participants were asked to press the space bar when they wanted to make a choice. The results showed that the main effect of group was significant, heroin abstainers overall had more risk-seeking behavior than control group; the main effect of the decision-making condition was also significant, all subjects had higher risk-seeking behavior under loss condition campared with reward condition. However, the interaction between group and decision-making condition was not significant. Besides, the rate of making a risk-seeking choice in heroin abstainers was found positively related with years of heroin use under the loss condition, while this corelation was not found under the reward condition. The further regression analysis found that the high proportion of risk-seeking decision in heroin abstainers could have been caused by the low risk-aversion tendency after negative feedback when they choose those high-risk options. Heroin abstainers showed a higher risk-seeking tendency than control group, this result again verifies the risky decision-making defects of substance addicts found in previous studies. The positive correlation between risk-seeking tendency and the years of heroin use may indicate decreased loss sensitivity in heroin abstainers, which may be further exacerbated by sustained drug using. The risk-aversion tendency of heroin abstainers when they received negative feedback after making risky decisions negatively predicted their risk-seeking tendency, this may reflect decreased sensitivity for risk or abnormal processes involved in integrating penalty information for the purpose of response selection. Further research is needed into the links between those deficits in decision-making under risk and compulsive drug-seeking behavior and relapse of heroin users. In addition, whether gender differences may affect the risky decision-making patterns of heroin abusers in different decision-making condition is also a question worth further exploring. Related Articles | Metrics

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A Follow-up Study on the Relationship Between Depression and Self-injury in Adolescents: Moderating Effect of Parent-Adolescent Communication 2022, 45(5): 1243-1250.  Abstract ( )   Adolescence is a stage of life characterized by change and rapid development. Depression and self-injury are two common mental health problems in adolescence. Previous studies have shown that there is a trend of development between depression and self-injury in adolescence, and there may be a two-way promotion relationship. This means that teenagers may fall into a vicious circle of depression and self-injury. For this reason, to explore the possible ways to break the vicious circle between depression and self-injury in adolescents, this study adopted a follow-up study design to investigate the two-way predictive relationship between adolescent depression and self-injury through cross-lag analysis, and then brought parent-child communication as a moderator into the analysis of the mechanism of the relationship between depression and self-injury. Participants as subjects for a follow-up survey for 10 months were 595 adolescents (50.59% girls; Mage = 12.17) who had experienced self-injury in the first and / or second year of junior high school. The first test was conducted in December 2018, using the Adolescent self-injury questionnaire and the floating Center Depression scale. The second test was conducted in October 2019, and the parent-child communication scale was added on the basis of the first test. Data were analyzed using SPSS21.0 and Mplus8.0, including repeated measurement of variance analysis, correlation analysis, regression analysis and path analysis of cross lag model. The results showed that: (1) From the first year of junior high school to the second year of junior high school, the depression of adolescents showed an increasing trend, and the gender difference was significant, and the depression level of girls was higher than that of boys; while the growth trend of self-injury of adolescents was not obvious, but showed obvious gender differences after the second year of junior high school. the level of self-injury of girls was higher than that of boys. (2) The simultaneous and continuous correlations between depression and self-injury in adolescents were significant. (3) Pre-test depression of adolescents can significantly predict post-test self-injury, but the predictive effect of pre-test self-injury on post-test depression was not obvious. (4) Post-test father-child communication and post-test mother-child communication had negative control response on the relationship between the level of pre-test depression and post-test self-injury in adolescents. In summary, from the perspective of development, this study confirms that depression in the first year of junior high school is a predictor of self-injury behavior in the second year of junior high school, and this relationship is regulated by parent-child communication, that is, good parent-child communication can significantly reduce the effect of depression on self-injury. These results reveal the interaction mechanism between adolescent depression and self-injury, which is of great significance for the formulation of targeted adolescent intervention measures. Related Articles | Metrics